Introduction
Female circumcision, the partial or total cutting away of the external female Instruments, has been practiced for centuries in parts of Africa, generally as one element of a rite of passage preparing young girls for womanhood and marriage1. The uncircumcised was regarded as taboo, uncultured and uncivilized and as such treated with contempt. Although the Christian and Islamic religions encouraged only male circumcision, both male and female circumcisions were widely practiced in this sub region before and after the advent of these religions. Female circumcision (genital mutilation) has been widely condemned by both government and non-governmental organizations worldwide. A recent United States asylum hearing has once again raised the question of female circumcision as a human rights issue. A Nigerian woman applied for asylum on the basis that, should she and her daughter be returned to Nigeria, her daughter would be compelled to undergo circumcision. 2 In granting her asylum the U.S tribunal ruled that circumcision violated a woman's human rights calling it a "cruel, painful and dangerous procedure. The view that female circumcision is cruel or amounts to persecution is a western perspective unacceptable to Africans. It fails to take cognizance of African cultural values or traditions and particularly ignores the African conception of human rights. This article will therefore examine the dangers in female circumcision from a specifically African perspective.
Types of Female circumcision
Female circumcision is characteritized into four types: The first type is the removal or splitting of the clitoral hood. This is often referred to as hoodectomy or clitorodotomy.
The second type is removal of the clitoris and whole or partial removal of the labia minora. The labia minora is the inner lips of the vulva. The left over epidermis is sewn. This is also called khafd, which is Arabic for reduction.
The third type is removal of the clitoris, the labia minora, and the inside of the labia majora. This leaves an open extensive inner wound. The labia majora are then held together with thorns or sewn. The girl's legs are then tied together and she is not allowed to move for two to six weeks. Two holes the diameter of a pencil are left to allow for the passage of urine and menstrual blood. This practice is known as pharaonic circumcision because it is believed that the Pharaohs practiced FC in this manner. It is common for this FC to be restored after every act of sexual intercourse and childbirth.
The fourth type is any type of female that is different from the first three. These may include stabbing the vagina with needles, burning the genitals, tearing away at vaginal flesh, and inserting herbs into the vagina.
Dangers in female circumcision- The Nigerian situation
The Edo situation
The Edo people are the main ethnic group in Edo State, Nigeria, and like other ethnic groups in Africa, female genital mutilation is done for various religious and cultural beliefs which have been difficult to eradicate despite western education. The types and extent of genital mutilation is a spectrum from clitoridal tip excision to complete clitoridal excision with labia minora/inner layer of majora excision. Many communities practice neonatal circumcision while others do it at any age as part of initiation rites. These result in a spectrum of complications, and the pattern of presentation depends on the extent of tissue excised, place of residence, the intensity of outcry against female genital mutilation in the community where the victim resides as well as cultural belief that saw complication arising from circumcision done as initiation rites as blessing from the gods which does not require medical attention.
A prospective study was undertaken among the Edo people, the main ethnic group in Edo State, at the University of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City, Nigeria. Consecutive cases of female children who presented with complications after genital mutilation, between January 2002 and December 2007 were recruited for the study. Also, female children that were brought to the unit hopefully for genital mutilation were noted. Cultural practices was the major indication for circumcision among the Edo people who accounted for 49 (96.1%) of the 51 children treated.
Hemorrhage from clitoridal arteries recorded in 6 (11.8%) children, Labia adhesion diagnosed in infants. Labia adhesion diagnosed in infants (Figure 2) were treated by breaking down the adhesion with artery forceps because 8 of them were flimsy fibrous tissues, but 2 children had dense adhesion that required examination under general anesthesia and labia separation. Adhesions that were not diagnosed in infancy were the cause of difficulties with penetration in 2 girls during sexual intercourse. These girls were anxious because of pressures from their spouses and friends. Two had perineal tear during delivery as a result of vestibular scars from childhood circumcision which were not diagnosed until delivery at traditional birth attendant homes. They presented following uncontrolled bleeding which required examination under general anesthesia and repair of the tear.6 other children were presented with vaginal discharge. The doctors treated them in the circumstances of each case. The parents of these children were properly counselled before they were sent home.


The Igbo situation
The issue of female circumcision ranks high as one of the many cases of domestic violence in Igbo land. Though considered as barbaric, the hygienic potentials of female circumcision commend it to successive generations of Igbo families. The superstitious impetus of female circumcision could not be lost on anyone who desires a deep knowledge of the practice in Igboland. It is believed that women who are not circumcised make love to spirits in their sleep who, in turn, cause unhealthy appetite for sexual intercourse. It is also said that such women give birth to Ogbanje (Abiku). With such unwholesome tales, out of fear and possible stigmatization, most mothers make sure that they circumcised their daughters.
Circumcision is done to arrest the interest and arousal for sex by the womenfolk and to avoid giving birth to children, who would live for short periods of time, die and come back to their mothers’ womb only to be born and continue the cycle, bringing grief and pain to the family.
In some instances, women who give birth to such children are regarded as having spiritual husbands and are thus, taken through a ritual bath. This ritual, which involves taking the woman to a fast flowing river, attracts general feeling of sadness against the mother for failing to circumcise her daughter during her childhood. Women who fail to circumcise their daughters are usually blamed for their negligence.
According to ancient folklore, it is alleged that one of the benefits of female circumcision is that during childbirth the woman does not go through birth pangs.
Most of the women who undergo female circumcision are said to have easy passage during delivery. They are also adjudged to be hardworking and productive in the farms.
However, a lot of criticisms have been directed at female genital mutilation, especially given the prevalence of certain diseases and because of the influence of modern education. Above all, female circumcision inhibits the sexuality of women, thereby leading to incessant marital squabbles and even divorce.
Women who are circumcised are known to find it hard to experience orgasm during sexual intercourse, a situation that leads to marital disharmony and frustration. The practice has been seen as a source of a lot of health hazards.
Evaluation of Policies aimed at Combating Female Circumcision
UNESCO has been working alongside several stakeholders to raise awareness at different levels and through various initiatives – from screenings of documentaries that are sometimes difficult to watch to organizing debates with member State representatives. More recently, in collaboration with sister UN agencies and other partners, they engaged in planning the establishment of a Centre (of Excellence) for the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting that we see as a real imperative. The proposed Centre aims to address the gaps in the current efforts to eliminate FGM/C and to champion multidisciplinary collaborative efforts. To be located in a country in sub-Saharan Africa, the Centre is expected to contribute to the abandonment of FGM/C within Africa and beyond in one generation through innovative research, training, policy advice, health care guidance, dialogue and advocacy for cultural change, and networking and capacity building across Africa, and internationally.
Conclusion and Recommendations.
Although this study was limited to a particular socio-cultural area of Nigeria, it provides indications that are useful for combating female circumcision.
Health service providers receive training and should incorporate female circumcision prevention into routine health clinic services. The campaign against female circumcision should be waged not only at the community level but also in well developed areas.
BY Ogaga.O.O