₦airaland Forum

21/03/2015 - Galatians 5:13

By Julie Ackerman Link
John 1:1-9

This man came for a witness, to bear witness of the Light. —John 1:7

The cozy little village of Rjukan, Norway, is a delightful place to live—except during the dark days of winter. Located in a valley at the foot of the towering Gaustatoppen Mountain, the town receives no direct sunlight for nearly half of the year. Residents had long considered the idea of placing mirrors at the top of the mountain to reflect the sun. But the concept was not feasible until recently. In 2005, a local artist began “The Mirror Project” to bring together people who could turn the idea into reality. Eight years later, in October 2013, the mirrors went into action. Residents crowded into the town square to soak up the reflected sunlight.

In a spiritual sense, much of the world is like the village of Rjukan—mountains of troubles keep the light of Jesus from getting through. But God strategically places His children to act as reflectors. One such person was John the Baptist, who came “to bear witness of the Light”—Jesus—who gives light “to those who sit in darkness and the shadow of death” (John 1:7; Luke 1:79).

Just as sunlight is essential for emotional and physical health, so exposure to the light of Jesus is essential for spiritual health. Thankfully, every believer is in a position to reflect His light into the world’s dark places.

Dear Father, help me to reflect Your light into the world around me today. May all that I say and do bear witness of Your light and truth. May others see how wonderful You are.

A world in darkness needs the light of Jesus.

Insight:
The author of the gospel of John is not the same John referred to in today’s reading (1:6). John the Baptist, the “man sent from God,” was the fulfillment of the “messenger” prophesied in Malachi 3:1 (see Mark 1:2-3). His main task was to introduce Jesus to the world and “to bear witness of the Light” (John 1:7-8.). The miraculous circumstances of John’s birth are told in Luke 1:5-80. He was probably a cousin of Jesus (Luke 1:36), had the privilege to baptize Him (Matt. 3:13-15), and was imprisoned and later beheaded by Herod (14:1-12). His ministry is recorded in Matthew 3; 11:1-11; Mark 1:1-9; and Luke 3. Jesus said that of “those born of women” (i.e., those born by ordinary human birth), none is greater than John the Baptist (Matt. 11:11).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/23/son-reflector/

By David C. McCasland
1 Thessalonians 2:6-14

You had become dear to us. —1 Thessalonians 2:8

During the 1980s, a singles’ class at our church became a close-knit family for many people who had lost a spouse through divorce or death. When someone needed to move, class members packed boxes, carried furniture, and provided food. Birthdays and holidays were no longer solitary events as faith and friendship merged into an ongoing relationship of encouragement. Many of those bonds forged during adversity three decades ago continue to flourish and sustain individuals and families today.

Paul’s letter to the followers of Jesus in Thessalonica paints a picture of life-giving relationships in God’s family. “We were gentle among you, just as a nursing mother cherishes her own children” (1 Thess. 2:7). “For you remember, [brothers and sisters], our labor and toil . . . that we might not be a burden to any of you” (v.9). “We exhorted, and comforted, and charged every one of you, as a father does his own children” (v.11). Like mothers, fathers, brothers, and sisters, Paul and his associates shared the gospel and their lives with these fellow believers who “had become dear” to them (v.8.).

In God’s family of faith, He provides mothers, fathers, sisters, and brothers for us. The Lord gives His joy as we share our lives together in His grace and love.

Father, You’ve called us to serve one another. Give me a heart willing to accept the care of others. May I ask for help when I am in need and respond with a heart of grace to others when they ask me for help.

God loves you and me; let’s love one another.

Insight:
Paul often talks about the relationship that followers of Christ have with each other. This relationship is so close that he compares it to the parts of the body working together (1 Cor. 12). Jesus says that people will know we are His followers by the way we treat one another (John 13:35).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/22/the-family-of-faith/

By Dave Branon
Nahum 1:1-9

The Lord is good, a stronghold in the day of trouble. —Nahum 1:7

When a defendant stands before a judge, he or she is at the mercy of the court. If the defendant is innocent, the court should be a refuge. But if the defendant is guilty, we expect the court to exact punishment.

In Nahum, we see God as both a refuge and a judge. It says, “The Lord is good, a refuge in times of trouble” (1:7 niv). But it also says, “He will make an end of Nineveh; he will pursue his foes into the realm of darkness” (v.8 niv). Over 100 years earlier, Nineveh had repented after Jonah preached God’s forgiveness, and the land was safe (Jonah 3:10). But during Nahum’s day, Nineveh was plotting “evil against the Lord” (Nah. 1:11). In chapter 3, Nahum details Nineveh’s destruction.

Many people know only one side of God’s dealings with the human race but not the other. They think that He is holy and wants only to punish us, or that He is merciful and wants only to show kindness. In truth, He is judge and refuge. Peter writes that Jesus “committed Himself to Him who judges righteously” (1 Peter 2:23). As a result, He “bore our sins in His own body on the tree, that we, having died to sins, might live for righteousness” (v.24).

The whole truth about God is good news! He is judge, but because of Jesus, we can go to Him as our refuge.

Lord, never let us underestimate You by seeing only one side of Your role in our lives. Help us to enjoy Your love and kindness while recognizing how much You hate sin.

God’s justice and mercy intersect at the cross.

Insight:
Nahum’s prophecy in many ways is a reflection of his name, which means “consolation.” Some believe that the prophet Nahum may have been from Galilee because the fishing village of Capernaum was on the shores of Galilee and Capernaum means “the village or town of Nahum.”

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/21/justice-and-mercy-combined/

20/03/2015 - 1 Timothy 4:8

By Jennifer Benson Schuldt
Judges 13:1-7

He shall begin to deliver Israel out of the hand of the Philistines. —Judges 13:5

When a powerful typhoon swept through the city of Tacloban, Philippines, in 2013, an estimated 10,000 people died, and many who survived found themselves homeless and jobless. Necessities became scarce. Three months later, while the town was still struggling to dig itself out from the destruction, a baby was born on a roadside near Tacloban amid torrents of rain and strong wind. Although the weather brought back painful memories, residents worked together to find a midwife and transport the mother and newborn to a clinic. The baby survived, thrived, and became a symbol of hope during a time of despair.

Forty years of Philistine oppression marked a grim period in Israel’s national history. During this time, an angel informed an Israelite woman that she would give birth to a special son (Judg. 13:3). According to the angel, the baby would be a Nazirite—a man set apart to God—and would “begin to deliver Israel out of the hand of the Philistines” (v.5). The infant, Samson, was a gift of hope born in a troubled time.

Trouble is unavoidable, yet Jesus has the power to rescue us from despair. Christ was born “to give light to those who sit in darkness and the shadow of death, to guide our feet in the way of peace” (Luke 1:76-79).

Lord, help me to see beyond my circumstances and put my hope in You. All authority and power are Yours. Remind me of Your goodness, and let me rest in Your love.

Jesus is the hope that calms life’s storms.

Insight:
Samson was set apart as “a Nazirite to God” even before he was born (vv. 5,7). Nazirite means “dedicated” or “consecrated.” Numbers 6:1-21 sets out the requirements for those who were Nazirites. Besides Samson, other well-known Nazirites in the Bible are Samuel (1 Sam. 1:11) and John the Baptist (Luke 1:15).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/20/a-gift-of-hope/

19/03/2015 - Proverbs 2:8

By Randy Kilgore
Nehemiah 1:4-11

In My Father’s house are many mansions; if it were not so, I would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you. —John 14:2

A thousand strands of time, events, and people weave into a tapestry we call place. More than just a house, place is where meaning, belonging, and safety come together under the covering of our best efforts at unconditional love. Place beckons us with memories buried deep in our souls. Even when our place isn’t perfect, its hold on us is dramatic, magnetic.

The Bible speaks frequently of place. We see an example in Nehemiah’s longing for a restored Jerusalem (Neh. 1:3-4; 2:2). It’s no surprise, then, that Jesus would speak of place when He wants to comfort us. “Let not your heart be troubled,” He began. Then He added: “I go to prepare a place for you” (John 14:1-2).

For those who have fond memories of earthly places, this promise links us to something we can easily understand and look forward to. And for those whose places have been anything but comforting and safe, Jesus promises that one day they will hear the sweet song place sings, for they will inhabit it with Him.

Whatever the struggle, whatever the faltering on your faith journey, remember this: There’s a place in heaven already waiting, fitted just for you. Jesus wouldn’t have said so if it weren’t true.

Jesus, I can’t wait to live in the home You have prepared for me. Thank You that no matter what my earthly place holds, comfort or pain, my home with You will be so much better.

May the memory of our earthly place point us with hope to our heavenly place.

Insight:
Today’s passage contains a beautiful insight into what makes our future in heaven so wonderful. In verse 9, Nehemiah quotes Moses saying that God will bring His people into the place where His name dwells. It is God’s presence that makes our future worth waiting for.

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/19/a-place-to-be/

By Dennis Fisher
Psalm 19:1-6

The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament shows His handiwork. —Psalm 19:1

When I was in elementary school my friend Kent and I would often spend time looking at the night sky with a pair of German-made binoculars. We marveled at the stars in the sky and the mountains on the moon. All throughout the evening we took turns saying, “Hand me the binocs!”

Centuries earlier a Jewish shepherd boy looked up at the night sky and also marveled. He did not have a pair of binoculars or a telescope to aid him. But he had something even more important—a personal relationship with the living God. I imagine the sheep quietly bleating in the background as David gazed skyward. Later he would write the inspired text: “The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament shows His handiwork. Day unto day utters speech, and night unto night reveals knowledge” (Ps. 19:1-2).

In our busy schedules, we can so easily forget to stand in awe of the heavenly beauty our Creator has prepared for our enjoyment and His glory. When we set aside time to look at the night sky and marvel at what is there, we gain a deeper understanding of God and His eternal power and glory.

We believe that this is Your world, Lord. We marvel at You and Your creativity when we look at the sky and the world around us. You, and what You have done, are amazing! We stand in awe of You.

In the wonders of God’s creation, we see His majesty and His character.

Insight:
Charles Haddon Spurgeon wrote this about David and Psalm 19: “In his earliest days the psalmist, while keeping his father’s flock, had devoted himself to the study of God’s two great books—nature and Scripture; and he had so thoroughly entered into the spirit of these two only volumes in his library that he was able with a devout criticism to compare and contrast them, magnifying the excellency of the Author as seen in both. . . . He is wisest who reads both the world-book and the Word-book as two volumes of the same work, and feels concerning them, ‘My Father wrote them both.’”

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/12/hand-me-the-binoculars/

18/03/2015 - Colossians 1:28

By Keila Ochoa
Matthew 4:1-10

[Jesus said,] “Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God.” —Matthew 4:4

During recent elections in my country, one struggling mom I know exchanged her vote for a bag of diapers. We had discussed the benefits of each candidate, so her choice disappointed me. “But what about your convictions?” I asked. She remained silent. Six months after her candidate won, taxes went even higher. Everything is now more expensive than before . . . even diapers!

In countries around the world, political corruption is not new. Spiritual corruption is not new either. Satan tried to lure Jesus into “selling” His convictions (Matt. 4:1-10). The tempter came to Him when He was tired and hungry. He offered Him immediate satisfaction, fresh bread in seconds, a miraculous delivery, the kingdoms of the world and their glory.

But Jesus knew better. He knew that shortcuts were dangerous enemies. They may offer a road free from suffering, but in the end the pain they carry is much worse than anything we can imagine. “It is written,” Jesus said three times during His temptation (vv.4,7,10). He held firm to what He knew was true from God and His Word.

When we are tempted, God can help us too. We can depend on Him and the truth of His Word to help us avoid dangerous shortcuts.

Help me not to take shortcuts to satisfaction, Lord. Help me to run to You and Your Word for the strength to fight the enemy. I’m confident that You will be there to help me.

God’s road is not easy, but it leads to eternal satisfaction.

Insight:
One of the most compelling elements of the temptations of Jesus is found in Matthew 4:1, where we read that it was the Spirit who led Jesus into the wilderness to be tested. This surprising action of the Spirit immediately follows the baptism of Jesus where the Spirit descended upon Him, indicating the Father’s endorsement of the Son (Matt. 3:16-17).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/18/dangerous-shortcuts/

17/03/2015 - Philippians 4:9

By Bill Crowder
James 1:2-12

My brethren, count it all joy when you fall into various trials, knowing that the testing of your faith produces patience. —James 1:2-3

Recently my wife, Marlene, and I received a panicky phone call from our son and his wife. The night before, they had found two bats in their house. I know bats are an important part of the ecosystem, but they are not my favorite among God’s creatures, especially when they are flying around inside.

Yet Marlene and I were thankful we could go over to our kids’ house and help. We helped them to plug the holes that might have been used by these unwelcome visitors to enter their house.

Another unwelcome visitor that often intrudes into our lives is suffering. When trials come, we can easily panic or lose heart. But these difficult circumstances can become the instruments our loving heavenly Father uses to make us more like Christ. That’s why James wrote, “My brethren, count it all joy when you fall into various trials, knowing that the testing of your faith produces patience. But let patience have its perfect work” (James 1:2-4).

We are not expected to enjoy trials or to celebrate suffering. But when these unwelcome visitors arrive, we can look for God’s hand in them and trust that He can use them to make us more like His Son.

Thank You, Father, that You give to us each day what You know is best. We’re thankful that we can trust Your heart, which is kind beyond all measure.

Trials may visit us, but our God is always with us.

Insight:
The epistle of James, one of the earliest New Testament writings (AD 44–47), was believed to be written by James, a half-brother of Jesus (Matt. 13:55). James didn’t believe Jesus was the Messiah until Jesus appeared to him after His resurrection (John 7:5; 1 Cor. 15:7). Eventually becoming a key leader of the church in Jerusalem (Gal. 2:9), James wrote this letter to encourage Jewish Christians dispersed by persecution and undergoing severe hardships to persevere and remain steadfast in the Lord (v. 12).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/17/unwelcome-visitors/

16/03/2015 - James 3:13

By David C. McCasland
Proverbs 10:2-15

A good name is to be chosen rather than great riches. —Proverbs 22:1

Charles Ponzi’s name will be forever associated with the financial fraud scheme he elevated to a way of life. After some minor financial crimes and brief times in jail, in early 1920 he began offering investors a 50 percent return on their money in 45 days and a 100 percent return in 90 days. Although it seemed too good to be true, the money poured in. Ponzi used money from new investors to pay prior investors and fund his lavish lifestyle. By the time his fraud was discovered in August 1920, investors had lost 20 million dollars and five banks had failed. Ponzi spent 3 years in prison, was later deported to Italy, and died penniless in 1949 at the age of 66.

The Old Testament book of Proverbs frequently contrasts the reputations of wise and foolish people: “The memory of the righteous is blessed, but the name of the wicked will rot. . . . He who walks with integrity walks securely, but he who perverts his ways will become known” (Prov. 10:7,9). Solomon sums it up by saying, “A good name is to be chosen rather than great riches, loving favor rather than silver and gold” (22:1).

We seek a good name, not to honor ourselves but to glorify Christ our Lord whose name is above all names.

Lord, You know what is best, and You desire to lead us in paths that are right and good. Give us the courage to trust and to follow You in the way of right living for Your name’s sake.

A good name honors our great God.

Insight:
The book of Proverbs provides good advice on how to live wisely. When reading the proverbs, it is important to understand that they are sayings about life that are usually true. Proverbs are not promises, but they contain observations about the principle of cause and effect at work in our lives.

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/16/a-good-name-2/

lomprico:
Dude, the first computing device was the abacus invented by the chinese sometime in the fiftren century.

An abacus is not like a modern computer. People think of a computer as an electronic, programmable device that can store, retrieve, and process data. There were many computing devices prior to the electronic computer that had processing capabilities. They were mechanical devices and are computers. There are many different kinds of computing devices and an abacus is one of them.
Source: http://www.answers.com/Q/Is_Abacus_a_computer

frank317:
Of course he is listening... Is he capable of anything else?

He is capable of everything.

By Marvin Williams
Psalm 5

My voice You shall hear in the morning, O Lord; in the morning I will direct it to You, and I will look up. —Psalm 5:3

The day before Billy Graham’s interview in 1982 on The Today Show, his director of public relations, Larry Ross, requested a private room for Graham to pray in before the interview. But when Mr. Graham arrived at the studio, his assistant informed Ross that Mr. Graham didn’t need the room. He said, “Mr. Graham started praying when he got up this morning, he prayed while eating breakfast, he prayed on the way over in the car, and he’ll probably be praying all the way through the interview.” Ross later said, “That was a great lesson for me to learn as a young man.”

Prayerfulness is not an event; it is a way of being in relationship with God. This kind of intimate relationship is developed when God’s people view prayerfulness as a way of life. The Psalms encourage us to begin each day by lifting our voice to the Lord (Ps. 5:3); to fill our day with conversations with God (55:17); and in the face of accusations and slander, to give ourselves totally to prayer (109:4). We develop prayer as a way of life because we desire to be with God (42:1-4; 84:1-2; 130:5-6).

Prayer is our way of connecting with God in all life’s circumstances. God is always listening. We can talk to Him any time throughout the day.

Thinking It Over
What is one major obstacle to developing your prayer life? What changes do you sense God wants to make in your heart so that you see prayer as a way of life?

In prayer, God hears more than your words— He listens to your heart.

Insight:
We are not told about the events that precipitated the writing of this psalm. Some scholars speculate that the enemies David speaks of may have been Doeg the Edomite (1 Sam. 22) or Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15–17). David brought his concerns to God because he knew God would deal with his enemies and care for him.

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/15/god-is-listening-2/

15/03/2015 - Psalm 143:10

A computer generally means a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a pre-recorded list of instructions (a program).

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery — wires, transistors, and circuits — is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.

All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

Memory: enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.
Mass storage device: allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.
Input device: usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.
Output device: a display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.
Central processing unit (CPU): the heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions.



In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.


HISTORY OF COMPUTER

The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century English mathematics professor named Charles Babbage. He designed the Analytical Engine and it was this design that the basic framework of the computers of today are based on.

Generally speaking, computers can be classified into three generations. Each generation lasted for a certain period of time, and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the existing computer.

First generation: 1937 – 1946 – In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic computer named the Colossus was built for the military. Other developments continued until in 1946 the first general–purpose digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform single task, and they had no operating system.

Second generation: 1947 – 1962 – This generation of computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC). In 1953 the International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series computers made their mark in the computer world. During this generation of computers over 100 computer programming languages were developed, computers had memory and operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in use also were printers for output.

Third generation: 1963 – present – The invention of integrated circuit brought us the third generation of computers. With this invention computers became smaller, more powerful more reliable and they are able to run many different programs at the same time. In 1980 Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-Dos) was born and in 1981 IBM introduced the personal computer (PC) for home and office use. Three years later Apple gave us the Macintosh computer with its icon driven interface and the 90s gave us Windows operating system.

As a result of the various improvements to the development of the computer we have seen the computer being used in all areas of life. It is a very useful tool that will continue to experience new development as time passes.


CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER

Since the advent of the first computer different types and sizes of computers are offering different services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large building and as small as a laptop or a microcontroller in mobile & embedded systems. The four basic types of computers are:
SUPERCOMPUTER

The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration purpose. The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some supercomputers can span an entire building. In 1964, Seymour Cray designed the first supercomputer CDC 6600.
MAINFRAME COMPUTER

Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Supercomputers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks, educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about their customers, students & insurance policyholders.
MINICOMPUTER

Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as “Midrange Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a desk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as Supercomputers & Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.
MICROCOMPUTER

Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers. The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony and Toshiba. Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks, Notebooks, PDAs, Tablet PCs, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.


COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

Hardware is generic term used to describe any component of a computer system with a physical presence and which can, therefore, been seen and touched.

Hardware components are often categorised as being input, output, storage or processing components. Devices which are not an integral part of the CPU are referred to as being peripherals. Peripherals are usually used for input, storage or output (such as a hard disk, keyboard or printer). A device does not necessarily have to be outside the same physical box as the CPU. The best example of this is the hard disk, which is a peripheral even though it is not usually housed within the main case. The main components of a computer are:

Input devices: They are hardware devices which take information from the user of the computer system, convert it into electrical signals and transmit it to the processor. The primary function of input devices is to allow humans to interact with the computer system. For instance a mouse allows the user to control the movement of the pointer (a common element in user interface design).
Output devices: They take data from the computer system and convert it to a form that can be interpreted by humans. For instance a monitor creates a visual electronic display to output information created by the processor to the user.
Processing devices: They are the components responsible for the processing of information within the computer system. This includes devices such as the CPU, memory and motherboard.
Storage devices: They are components which allow data to be stored within a computer system. This includes devices such as hard disk drives and compact disk drives.

Source: http://www.inyavic.com/2015/03/13/computer/

The operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop — it makes sure different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.


HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Historically operating systems have been tightly related to the computer architecture, it is good idea to study the history of operating systems from the architecture of the computers on which they run.

Operating systems have evolved through a number of distinct phases or generations which corresponds roughly to the decades.
THE 1940’S – FIRST GENERATIONS

The earliest electronic digital computers had no operating systems. Machines of the time were so primitive that programs were often entered one bit at time on rows of mechanical switches (plug boards). Programming languages were unknown (not even assembly languages). Operating systems were unheard of.
THE 1950’S – SECOND GENERATION

By the early 1950’s, the routine had improved somewhat with the introduction of punch cards. The General Motors Research Laboratories implemented the first operating systems in early 1950’s for their IBM 701. The system of the 50’s generally ran one job at a time. These were called single-stream batch processing systems because programs and data were submitted in groups or batches.
THE 1960’S – THIRD GENERATION

The systems of the 1960’s were also batch processing systems, but they were able to take better advantage of the computer’s resources by running several jobs at once. So operating systems designers developed the concept of multiprogramming in which several jobs are in main memory at once; a processor is switched from job to job as needed to keep several jobs advancing while keeping the peripheral devices in use.

For example, on the system with no multiprogramming, when the current job paused to wait for other I/O operation to complete, the CPU simply sat idle until the I/O finished. The solution for this problem that evolved was to partition memory into several pieces, with a different job in each partition. While one job was waiting for I/O to complete, another job could be using the CPU.

Another major feature in third-generation operating system was the technique called spooling (simultaneous peripheral operations on line). In spooling, a high-speed device like a disk interposed between a running program and a low-speed device involved with the program in input/output. Instead of writing directly to a printer, for example, outputs are written to the disk. Programs can run to completion faster, and other programs can be initiated sooner when the printer becomes available, the outputs may be printed.

Note that spooling technique is much like thread being spun to a spool so that it may be later be unwound as needed.

Another feature present in this generation was time-sharing technique, a variant of multiprogramming technique, in which each user has an on-line (i.e., directly connected) terminal. Because the user is present and interacting with the computer, the computer system must respond quickly to user requests, otherwise user productivity could suffer. Timesharing systems were developed to multi-program large number of simultaneous interactive users.
FOURTH GENERATION

With the development of LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, chips, operating system entered the personal computer and the workstation age. Microprocessor technology evolved to the point that it became possible to build desktop computers as powerful as the mainframes of the 1970s. Two operating systems have dominated the personal computer scene: MS-DOS, written by Microsoft, Inc. for the IBM PC and other machines using the Intel 8088 CPU and its successors, and UNIX, which is dominant on the large personal computers using the Motorola 6899 CPU family.


TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
SINGLE USER, SINGLE TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM

This type of operating system only has to deal with one person at a time, running one user application at a time. An example of this kind of operating system would be found on a mobile phone. There can only be one user using the mobile and that person is only using one of its applications at a time.
SINGLE USER, MULTI TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM

You will find this kind of operating system on a personal computer. The operating system is designed mainly with a single user in mind, but it can deal with many applications running at the same time. For example, you might be writing an essay, while searching the internet, downloading a video file and also listening to a piece of music.
MULTI TASKING OPERATING SYSTEM

A multitasking operating system is any type of operating system that is capable of running more than one program at a time. Most modern operating systems are configured to handle multiple programs simultaneously, with the exception of some privately developed systems that are designed for use in specific business settings. With older examples of the multitasking operating system, managing two or more tasks normally involved switching system resources back and forth between the two running processes. The system would execute tasks for one, freeze that program for a few seconds, and then execute tasks for the other program. While this approach did create a short time lag for the operator, this lag was usually no more than a few seconds and still offered considerable more efficiency than the older single-task operating system.
MULTI USER OPERATING SYSTEM

A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer’s resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn’t affect the entire community of users. UNIX, VMS and mainframe operating systems, such as MVS, are examples of multi-user operating systems.
DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEM

Distributed Operating System is a model where distributed applications are running on multiple computers linked by communications. A distributed operating system is an extension of the network operating system that supports higher levels of communication and integration of the machines on the network. This system looks to its users like an ordinary centralized operating system but runs on multiple, independent central processing units (CPUs).
EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEM

An embedded operating system is a computer operating system that is part of a different kind of machine. Examples include computers in cars, traffic lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane controls, point of sale (POS) terminals, digital cameras, GPS navigation systems, elevators, digital media receivers and smart meters, among many other possibilities. In contrast to an operating system for a general-purpose computer, an embedded operating system is typically quite limited in terms of function – depending on the device in question, the system may only run a single application. However, that single application is crucial to the device’s operation, so an embedded OS must be reliable and able to run with constraints on memory, size and processing power.
REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEM

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system (OS) intended to serve real-time application process data as it comes in, typically without buffering delays. Processing time requirements (including any OS delay) are measured in tenths of seconds or shorter. A key characteristic of an RTOS is the level of its consistency concerning the amount of time it takes to accept and complete an application’s task; the variability is jitter. A hard real-time operating system has less jitter than a soft real-time operating system. The chief design goal is not high throughput, but rather a guarantee of a soft or hard performance category. An RTOS that can usually or generally meet a deadline is a soft real-time OS, but if it can meet a deadline deterministically it is a hard real-time OS.


MAJOR OPERATING SYSTEMS
MICROSOFT WINDOWS

Microsoft Windows (or simply Windows) is a meta-family of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of several families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows Embedded Compact (Windows CE) or Windows Server. Defunct Windows families include Windows 9x and Windows Mobile.

Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world’s personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. However, since 2012, it sells less than Android, that became the most popular operating system in 2014, when counting on all of the computing platforms Windows runs on (same as Android), not just desktop; in 2014, selling less than a quarter of Android.

As of April 2014, the most recent versions of Windows for personal computers, smartphones, server computers and embedded devices are respectively Windows 8.1, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows Embedded 8. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console.

The next version of Windows is Windows 10 and is currently available as a technical preview; it is set for release for phones, tablets, laptops, and PCs in late 2015.
MAC OS

Mac OS is a series of graphical user interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. for their Macintosh line of computer systems.

The original operating system was first introduced in 1984 as being integral to the original Macintosh, and referred to as the “System”. Referred to by its major revision starting with “System 6” and “System 7″, Apple rebranded version 7.6 as “Mac OS” as part of their Macintosh clone program in 1996. The Macintosh, specifically its system software, is credited with having popularized the early graphical user interface concept.

Macintosh operating systems have been released in two major series. Up to major revision 9, from 1984 to 2000, it is historically known as Classic Mac OS. Major revision 10, from 2001 to present, is branded OS X (originally referred to as Mac OS X). Major revisions to the Macintosh OS are now issued as point revisions, such that, for example, 10.2 is substantially different from 10.5. Both series share a general interface design, and there has been some overlap with shared application frameworks and virtual machine technology for compatibility; but the two series also have deeply different architectures.
LINUX

Linux is a Unix-like and mostly POSIX-compliant computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy.

Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for Intel x86–based personal computers, but has since been ported to more computer hardware platforms than any other operating system. It is the leading operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers and supercomputers, but is used on only around 1% of desktop computers. Linux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system; this includes mobile phones, tablet computers, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions and video game consoles. Android, the most widely used operating system for tablets and smartphones, is built on top of the Linux kernel.

The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The underlying source code may be used, modified, and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a form known as a Linux distribution, for both desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions include Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, Arch Linux, and the commercial Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supporting utilities and libraries and usually a large amount of application software to fulfil the distribution’s intended use.

A distribution oriented toward desktop use will typically include X11, Wayland or Mir as the windowing system, and an accompanying desktop environment such as GNOME or the KDE Software Compilation. Some such distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce, for use on older or less powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, and instead include other software to set up and operate a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use.


COMPONENTS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Even though, not all systems have the same structure many modern operating systems share the same goal of supporting the following types of system components.
PROCESS MANAGEMENT

The operating system manages many kinds of activities ranging from user programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated in a process. A process includes the complete execution context (code, data, PC, registers, OS resources in use etc.).

It is important to note that a process is not a program. A process is only ONE instant of a program in execution. There are many processes can be running the same program. The five major activities of an operating system in regard to process management are:

Creation and deletion of user and system processes.
Suspension and resumption of processes.
A mechanism for process synchronization.
A mechanism for process communication.
A mechanism for deadlock handling.

MAIN-MEMORY MANAGEMENT

Primary-Memory or Main-Memory is a large array of words or bytes. Each word or byte has its own address. Main-memory provides storage that can be access directly by the CPU. That is to say for a program to be executed, it must be in the main memory.

The major activities of an operating in regard to memory-management are:

Keep track of which part of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes are loaded into memory when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.

FILE MANAGEMENT

A file is a collected of related information defined by its creator. Computer can store files on the disk (secondary storage), which provide long term storage. Some examples of storage media are magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, and data transfer rate and access methods.

A file system is normally organized into directories to ease their use. These directories may contain files and other directories. The five main major activities of an operating system in regard to file management are:

The creation and deletion of files.
The creation and deletion of directions.
The support of primitives for manipulating files and directions.
The mapping of files onto secondary storage.
The backup of files on stable storage media.

I/O SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

I/O subsystem hides the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the user. Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of the specific device to which it is assigned.
SECONDARY-STORAGE MANAGEMENT

Generally speaking, systems have several levels of storage, including primary storage, secondary storage and cache storage. Instructions and data must be placed in primary storage or cache to be referenced by a running program. Because main memory is too small to accommodate all data and programs, and its data are lost when power is lost, the computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory. Secondary storage consists of tapes, disks, and other media designed to hold information that will eventually be accessed in primary storage (primary, secondary, cache) is ordinarily divided into bytes or words consisting of a fixed number of bytes. Each location in storage has an address; the set of all addresses available to a program is called an address space.

The three major activities of an operating system in regard to secondary storage management are:
Managing the free space available on the secondary-storage device.
Allocation of storage space when new files have to be written.
Scheduling the requests for memory access.

NETWORKING

A distributed system is a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one another through communication lines called network. The communication-network design must consider routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
PROTECTION SYSTEM

If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple processes, then the various processes must be protected from one another’s activities. Protection refers to mechanism for controlling the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system.
COMMAND INTERPRETER SYSTEM

A command interpreter is an interface of the operating system with the user. The user gives commands with are executed by operating system (usually by turning them into system calls). The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next user specified command. Command-Interpreter is usually not part of the kernel, since multiple command interpreters (shell, in UNIX terminology) may be supported by an operating system, and they do not really need to run in kernel mode. There are two main advantages to separating the command interpreter from the kernel.

If we want to change the way the command interpreter looks, i.e., I want to change the interface of command interpreter, I am able to do that if the command interpreter is separate from the kernel. I cannot change the code of the kernel so I cannot modify the interface.

If the command interpreter is a part of the kernel it is possible for a malicious process to gain access to certain part of the kernel that it showed not have to avoid this ugly scenario it is advantageous to have the command interpreter separate from kernel.

Source: http://www.inyavic.com/2015/03/06/operating-system/

By Jennifer Benson Schuldt
Exodus 20:18-26

The people stood afar off, but Moses drew near . . . where God was. —Exodus 20:21

Imagine standing at the bottom of a mountain, elbow-to-elbow with everyone in your community. Thunder and lightning flash; you hear an earsplitting trumpet blast. Amid flames, God descends on the mountaintop. The summit is enveloped in smoke; the entire mountain begins to shake, and so do you (Ex. 19:16-20).

When the Israelites had this terrifying experience near Mount Sinai, they begged Moses, “You speak with us, and we will hear; but let not God speak with us, lest we die” (20:19). The Israelites were asking Moses to mediate between them and the Almighty. “So the people stood afar off, but Moses drew near the thick darkness where God was” (v.21). After meeting with God, Moses brought God’s messages back down the mountain to the people below.

Today, we worship the same God who displayed His staggering greatness on Mount Sinai. Because God is perfectly holy and we are desperately sinful, we cannot relate to Him. Left to ourselves we too would (and should) shake in terror. But Jesus made it possible for us to know God when He took our sins on Himself, died, and rose again (1 Cor. 15:3-4). Even now, Jesus is the go-between for us to a holy and perfect God (Rom. 8:34; 1 Tim. 2:5).

Dear Jesus, thank You for laying down Your life so that I could know God. I worship You as the only one who bridges the gap between God and me.

Jesus bridges the gap between God and us.

Insight:
On Mount Sinai, God manifested His presence loudly and visibly through thunder, lightning, the sound of a trumpet, and a smoking mountain (v. 18). Moses explained that this display of power and majesty was to demonstrate God’s incomparable holiness. His power and glory were displayed so that the Israelites would revere and worship Him (v. 20).

Source: http://odb.org/2015/03/14/the-go-between/

14/03/2015 - Philippians 1:6