₦airaland Forum

The Relationship Between Class Size And Secondary School Student's Academic Performance In Geography



The relationship between class size and academic performance of secondary school students in geography has been a perplexing one for educators. Studies have found that the physical environment, class overcrowding, teachers' methods, grade level, pupil characteristics and subject areas and other learning interventions are the variables that affect students’ achievement (Molnar, et al., 2000). Other factors that affect student achievement are school population and class size (Gentry, 2000 Swift 2000).
Since the attainment of independence in 1960, Nigeria has been experiencing unprecedented growth and expansion in secondary school education. According to Fafunwa (1982) secondary schools increased from 315 – 1240 between 1960 and 1965, the figure quadrupled in 1970 as a result of the revenue generated from the oil boom in Nigeria. In all the states of the federation, there was a corresponding increase in students’ enrolment at both primary and post-primary schools, the increase is evident as it cuts across all the secondary school subjects including geography.
The core subjects are the basic subjects which will enable a student to offer Arts or Science in higher education, the classification of geography as a core subject, therefore, enhanced the status of the subject in the secondary school education system the fact that geography belongs to social science, art and pure science also makes the subject popular among the students, so also the inclusion of geography in the same group with literature in English, History, Economics, and Political Science also makes the subject popular among the students, and also gives them a wider choice, literature is seen by most students as too wide, while history is becoming a dead subject as a result of the teaching of government.
Geography has consequently attracted more students in recent years which results in a significant increase in the total number of student enrolment which has created logistic, structural and personal problems. While the large number of students studying geography does not correspond with the stagnant facilities and the primitive resources available in most schools.
Statement of the Problem
It is observed that the number of geography students in Abeokuta-South Local Government Area of Ogun State is increasing exponentially but there are little or no corresponding resources for effective teaching and learning of geographies, such as classrooms, laboratories, charts, maps, and the number of teachers are not enough while the little available resources are over laboured. For instance, a geography class that was supposed to be a 1:40 teacher – students ratio, according to the specification by the National Policy on Education (1977 revised in 1981, 1998 and 2004) is now a 1:80 teacher – students ratio or more.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of this study is to find out the relationship between class size and secondary school student academic achievement in geography using some selected secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State as a case study. The specific objectives are to:
(i)
Examine both positive and negative effects of class size on the academic performance of students in geography.
(ii)
Examine the relationship between class size and academic performance of students in geography.
(iii)
Examine the relationship between school population and academic performance of students in geography.
(iv)
Examine the relationship that exists between the opinion of male teachers and female teachers on the effect of class size on students' academic performance in geography.
Research Questions
(i)
What is the relationship between class size and academic performance on students’ comprehension of geography?
(ii)
Does class size influence project execution in geography?
(iii)
Does class size have an effect on the level of attention in geography class?
(iv)
What influence does class size have on students' scores in geography?
Research Hypothesis
H01: There is no significant relationship between the opinion of male and female teachers on students' academic performance in geography.
H02: There is no significant relationship between class size and students' academic performance in geography.
H03: There is no significant relationship between the opinion of teachers and principals on the effects of class size on the academic performance of geography students.
H04: There is no significant relationship between class size and students' scores in academic performance in geography.
Scope of the Study
This research work focuses on the relationship between class size and student academic achievement in geography using some selected secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State as a case study. This research work covers all public secondary schools in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State. However, five public secondary schools will be used as a case study.
Significance of the Study
This study is important for several reasons.
Firstly, the researcher believes that this study will expose and enlighten the school administrators and teachers on the negative and positive effects of class size on students' academic performance in geography in secondary school in Abeokuta – South Local Government.
Secondly, the suggestions offered in this study will assist the educational authority in planning and administration of the school curriculum, most especially in the area of evaluation of students' academic performance in geography.
Thirdly, this research work will lead to a further in-depth study on the impact of class size and school population on the academic performance of students in Nigeria.
Lastly, it will serve as a contribution to knowledge in the subject area. In this regard, it will be useful for other researchers who might want to carry out research in related areas.
Definition of Terms
Effects: This is the positive or negative effect of class size.
Class size: The total number of students in the class
Positive: This means the maximum number of students that should be in the classroom.
Negative: This means the number of students has increased above the maximum estimate.
Abeokuta
–South: This is one of the twenty Local Government areas of Ogun State.
Core Subject: This is one of the main subjects in secondary school.
Classification: This means the grouping of geography into different categories such as physical, human, and regional geography.
Academic achievement: Knowledge attained or skills developed in school subjects by test scores.
Secondary School: (also “high school”) is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specific age takes place? It follows elementary or primary education and may be followed by university (tertiary) education.
Over-crowding: This is when the number of students in a particular class exceeds the standard of students – teacher ratio, as specified by the National Policy on Education, which is 1:40 (One teacher for forty students in a class).
Abstract
The study found the relationship between class size and academic performance of geography students in secondary school in Abeokuta – South Local Government Area of Ogun State.
The study adopted a random sampling technique to select one hundred and twenty respondents in five secondary schools in each ward of the Local Government. Pearson correlation was used to test the hypothesis.
The results showed that male and female teachers were similar in their opinion on the relationship between class size and academic achievement of secondary school students in geography, indicating that the performance of students in large classes was very low compared to those in smaller classes.
It was recommended that policymakers and government should recruit more geography teachers and ensure that more classrooms are built and the number of students in a class should not be more than 30.


EDITOR SOURCE: The Relationship Between Class Size And Secondary School Student's Academic Performance In Geography In Abeokuta-South Local Government Area Of Ogun State

Consequences Of Deforestation On Rural Household Income
Introduction
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stands of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include the conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Deforestation occurs for many reasons: trees are cut down to be used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of charcoal) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of commodities and settlements. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on the biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% of deforestation; commercial agriculture is responsible for 32% of deforestation; logging is responsible for 14% of deforestation and fuel wood removals make up 5% of deforestation.
Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the inequitable distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labour, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.
Deforestation is a contributor to global warming and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localised upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall.
The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to a lower water intake for the trees to extract. Deforestation reduces soil cohesion so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.
Background
Forests cover almost a third of the earth’s land surface providing many environmental benefits including a major role in the hydrologic cycle, soil conservation, prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity (Sheram, 1993). Forest resources can provide long-term national economic benefits. For example, at least 145 countries in the world are currently involved in wood production (Anon., 1994). Sufficient evidence is available that the whole world is facing an environmental crisis on account of heavy deforestation. For years remorseless destruction of forests has been going on and we have not been able to comprehend the dimension until recently. Nobody knows exactly how much of the world’s rainforests have already been destroyed and continue to be razed each year. Data is often imprecise and subject to differing interpretations. However, it is obvious that the area of tropical rainforest is diminishing as observed in the case of Odighi forest in Odighi Local government area of Edo State and the rate of tropical rainforest destruction is escalating worldwide, despite increased environmental activism and awareness. Deforestation is the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as agriculture, grazing or urban development (van Kooten et al, 2000).
Deforestation is primarily a concern for the developing countries of the tropics (Myers, 1994) as it is shrinking areas of the tropical forests (Barraclough et al, 2000) causing loss of biodiversity and enhancing the greenhouse effect (Angelsen et al., 1999). FAO considers a plantation of trees established primarily for timber production to be forest and therefore does not classify natural forest conversion to the plantation as deforestation (but still records it as a loss of natural forests). However, FAO does not consider tree plantations that provide non-timber products to be forests although they do classify rubber plantations as forests.
Forest degradation occurs when the ecosystem functions of the forest are degraded but where the area remains forested rather than cleared (Anon., 2010).
Thirty per cent of the earth’s land area or about 3.9 billion hectares is covered by forests. It was estimated that the original forest cover was approximately six billion hectares (Bryant et al 1997). The Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China were the most forest-rich countries accounting for 53 per cent of the total forest area of the globe. Another 64 countries having a combined population of two billion was reported to have forest on less than ten per cent of their total land area and unfortunately ten of these countries have no forest at all. Among these countries 16 are such which had relatively substantial forest areas of more 1than one million hectares each and three of these countries namely Chad, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Mongolia each had more than ten million hectares of forest. The forest area remained fairly stable in North and Central America while it expanded in Europe during the past decade. Asian continent especially India and China due to their large-scale afforestation programme in the last decade registered a net gain in the forest area. Conversely, South America, Africa and Oceania had registered a net annual loss of forest area (Anon., 2010).
Abstract
This study was intended to evaluate the consequences of deforestation on rural household income. This study was guided by the following objectives; to find out the causes of deforestation in Odighi in Edo state, to examine the consequences of rural household income, and to determine the strategies for reducing deforestation.
The study employed a descriptive and explanatory design; questionnaires in addition to library research were applied in order to collect data. Primary and secondary data sources were used and data was analyzed using simple percentages which were presented in frequency tables and percentages. The respondents under the study were 50 respondents including farmers, hunters and staff of the agricultural and forestry department in Odighi Edo state, Abuja branch. The study majorly focuses on the consequences of deforestation on rural household income.
The study findings revealed that deforestation negatively affects rural household income in Odighi Edo state; based on the findings from the study, efforts should be made by the Nigerian government and stakeholders in promoting tree planting and preservation.

EDITOR SOURCE: Consequences Of Deforestation On Rural Household Income

Job satisfaction is not a new phenomenon at all in any organization. It is one of the topics that have drawn interest among scholars in the field. Many studies have been done on this particular topic for over six decades and thousands of articles have been published (Zembylas& Papantasiu,2006). Job satisfaction has been defined as “a pleasurable emotional state arising from the appraisal of one’s job, an affective reaction to one’s job, and an attitude towards one job (Ubom, 2001). It has also been shown that when job satisfaction in the teaching profession increases, turnover decreases (Robert, 2004).
Job satisfaction as a social construct does not have a precise definition as it is exposed to different meanings and interpretations from different scholars. There is a lack of consensus on what actually constitutes job satisfaction, Locke and Lathan see job satisfaction as the pleasurable or positive emotional or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience. A different definition of job satisfaction considers it to be an emotional reaction based on the comparison between actual and expected outcomes (Stone, 1992). Workers' decisions about whether to work or not and what kinds of jobs to accept or stay in are all likely to depend on the evaluation of their job satisfaction. However, job satisfaction among teachers can be described as the extent to which teachers are satisfied with their job, and the degree to which teachers are having the pleasurable and positive feelings that individuals have towards their jobs.
Since a nation’s progress depends on the quality of education which in turn depends on the quality of teachers, then the quality of teaching is well related to the satisfaction of the teachers with their job. It is important that teachers are satisfied with their job because satisfaction is an important factor in the achievement of the established goals and objectives of teaching. Humanity rises or falls, grows or declines, flourishes or withers, not only in the nation but also at the universal level, depending on the education it gets. These problems coupled with the challenges of the global economy pose a major concern to the government and board of education.
Students’ achievement is expected to be high to satisfy parents and stakeholders and to match with the present world of high technological know-how. Teachers’ dissatisfaction and its effects on teacher retention pose a great threat to a profession with an increasing demand for members. The quest for teachers’ satisfaction with effective classroom instruction is a major issue facing Nigeria today. Against this background, the researcher investigated determinants of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State.

Statement of the problem
The concerns of most organisations, in the submission of Amoda, Odunaike and Oluwaseun (2007).is the attitude of the workers to work. Workers are expected to be dedicated and committed to their work. Adeyemo (2001) however, observed that it is common to hear people remark that present-day teachers are not as good or committed as their former counterparts, when teachers are truly not committed to their work, it is an indication of dissatisfaction with their job. Studies from diverse nations of the world indicate that teachers have at one time or the other been dissatisfied with their job. As such, there is a need to identify the factors that bring about job satisfaction. This means that it might not be a continuous experience. Hence, teachers who are satisfied with their work today might be satisfied with it tomorrow or vice-versa. This implies that consistent research is required to ascertain the job satisfaction status of teachers at a particular time.
A closer examination of job satisfiers among secondary school teachers in Nigeria, however, showed that there is still a gap to be filled. In view of these, the present study investigated the determinants of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State, Nigeria.


Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the determinants of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in the Moro Local Government Area of Kwara State. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to:
1. identify the level of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in secondary schools in Moro Local Government, Kwara State.
2. determine the factors that contribute to teachers' job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Moro LGA Kwara state.
3. examine the socio-economic factor that determines job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Moro LGA Kwara State.
4. investigate the coping strategies adopted by teachers in managing job satisfaction in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State.
Research questions
1. What is the level of job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Moro LGA, Kwara State?
2. What are the socioeconomic factors that determine job satisfaction among secondary school teachers in Moro LGA Kwara State?
3. What are the factors that contribute to the job satisfaction of teachers in secondary schools in Moro LGA Kwara State?
4. What are the coping strategies adopted by teachers in managing job satisfaction in secondary schools in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State?
Significance of the study
The study is significant to the government at all levels, of education, the parents, education planners, policymakers as well as other stakeholders in education. The finding of this study would help the public and private schools to know certain factors that determine job satisfaction among secondary school teachers, thereby making the school management develop appropriate strategies to enhance teacher job satisfaction in school.
The finding of this study would also serve as sources of reference for other researchers who may want to conduct similar studies in other parts of the country.
Scope of the study
The study comprised all public secondary schools in Moro LGA, 23 (Twenty-three) out of secondary schools in Moro Local Government Area were be used for this study 200 out of 300 teachers in Moro Local Government Area teachers were be used as respondents for the secondary the indicators for the determinant of job satisfaction was measured based on levels of job satisfaction, socio-economic factor and coping strategies among other. The study was limited to the selected secondary schools within Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State.
Definitions of Terms
Motivation: to the complex forces, drive, need or other mechanisms that start and maintain voluntary activity directed toward the achievement of personal goals(salary promotion have, recognition) in secondary schools in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara State.
Job satisfaction: the state of steadfastness or contentment in the type of job that one does.
Job characteristics: refers to the content and nature of the tasks themselves.
Secondary school: refers to the post-primary school that offers formal education to pupils who have successfully completed six years of primary education and have met the requisite entry requirement to junior secondary school (3 years).
EDITOR SOURCES:
1. Determinants Of Job Satisfaction Among Secondary School Teachers
2. The Determinants Of Job Satisfaction Among Secondary School Teachers
3. The Determinants Of Job Satisfaction Among Secondary School Teachers

AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF TEACHING OF ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES IN SOME SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOLS






Introduction
The teaching and learning of the English Language are very important in our society today. This is because of the various roles it plays in the geopolitical structure of the country. In Nigeria, the English Language is used for communication, education, and economic and social purposes. In the school system, the English Language is not only taught as a subject but it is also the core subject by which over school subject is being taught.
Despite the above, less attention is given to the grammatical aspect of English in primary school. Today, the nature of teaching and learning of English grammatical structure in primary school has become an area of great interest to teachers, researchers, and policymakers because through it the acquisition of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) is greatly enhanced.
In view of the above, grammatical structure which entails English tenses, parts of speech, punctuation, concord, clauses and phrases, is of immense importance to the teaching, learning and mastery of the English language among primary school pupils. Therefore it must not only be taught to the pupils, but it should be taken seriously at the primary school level since primary education is a better foundation on which the future depends.
Looking however at what is applicable in some selected primary schools in Kaduna North Local Government Area of Kaduna State, the general practice by both teachers and pupils towards the teaching and learning of English grammatical structure is not encouraging. Emphasis has shifted from learning the grammar of the language to teaching writing and reading comprehension, the use of past common entrance examination question papers, the teaching of spellings, dictation etc instead of adequate instruction/explanation on the aspects of English grammatical structures which is much needed by the pupils.
Lack of trained/qualified teachers, inadequate materials (textbooks and teaching aids), poor classroom facilities, the ambiguity of some English syllabi, inadequate evaluation of teacher’s work by the supervisory authority, the teacher’s inability to properly evaluate pupils’ work on grammar, are all contributory factors to pupils’ poor performance is not only the grammatical structure but other aspects of English language at large.
Therefore the teaching and learning of the English language in primary school should be to ensure that pupils have good knowledge and mastery of the grammatical structures and the ability to use these effectively for a better improvement in the English language. This is what has actually prompted the need for this research.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The problem to be investigated in “An evaluative study of the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in some primary schools.”
The research work is aimed at identifying the causes of pupils’ poor performance in using English structural items correctly. As a result of this, and other problems, this research will specifically investigate the following:
1. How pupils in primary schools are motivated to learn and use English grammatical structures.
2. The methods and techniques employed by teachers in the teaching of English structural items in the primary school and the effectiveness of these methods and techniques.
• The types of materials (textbooks/teaching aids) used by the teachers and how relevant these materials are to the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures.
1. The types of teachers employed to teach the English language in the primary school.
2. The areas of difficulty faced by teachers and pupils in the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in primary schools.
3. Suggest how best to improve the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in primary school.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this research are:
1. Find out how English grammatical structures are being taught in primary school.
2. Address the various challenges faced by teachers and learners of English, especially in the aspects of grammatical structures.
3. Make educational planners, language policy makers, curriculum developers and educational administrators to be aware of what is happening in the field (classroom).
4. Identify problem areas in the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in primary schools and proffer solutions to such identified problems.
5. Assess and evaluate the quality of teachers teaching English and the materials used in the teaching of English grammatical structures whether the materials are adequate, relevant or not.
6. Finally, this research work will suggest and recommend some measures for improving the standard of English language teaching and learning with a special focus on grammatical structures at the primary school level.


1.4 Hypothesis
There has been great and serious concern from parents, teachers and educational bodies about the declining standard of pupils’ performance in the English language. It is because of this that the researcher sets out to test the following hypotheses:
1. i) That pupils in the primary school show a non-challant attitude to the learning of English grammatical structures due to its rules and technicalities.
2. ii) That some of the teachers teaching English are not qualified to teach English.
• iii) That some teachers use methods that are inappropriate and inadequate for pupils' comprehension in the teaching of English grammatical structures.
1. iv) That there is general neglect by both teachers and pupils on the aspect of grammatical structures.
2. v) That some English textbooks are inadequate, outdated and inappropriate for pupils’ learning background.

1.5 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Due to the large size of the study area and the number of primary schools availably, the researcher finds it uneasy to cover the whole primary schools in the local government area. Few schools are therefore randomly selected for the purpose of this study, namely:
1. i) G.E.A Primary School, U/Sarki
2. ii) G.E.A Primary School, U/Rimi
• iii) G.E.A Primary School, Kaduna
1. iv) G.E.A Primary School, Kawo
2. v) E. A Primary School, U/Shanu.
3. vi) G.E.A Primary School, M/Gari.
This research is also going to centre on the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in the above primary schools only.


ABSTRACT
This research work is concerned with the evaluative study of teaching and learning English grammatical structures in primary school. The research deals with the nature, objectives, methods steps and problems of teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in some selected primary schools in Kaduna North Local Government. In chapter one, the problem to be investigated was stated; the objectives, hypothesis, scope and delimitation of the study were well treated. While chapter two reviews relevant literature related to the teaching and learning of English grammatical structures in primary school. The last three chapters centred on research methodology (i.e. methods of data collection), tabulation, analysis and discussion of data collected, summary, and recommendations for the improvement of teaching and learning of grammatical structures in the primary school; there is also a general conclusion of all the issues raised in this research work.



EDITOR SOURCE: An Evaluative Study Of Teaching Of English Grammatical Structures In Some Selected Primary Schools

FACTOR AFFECTING THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS






INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Primary School as the first level of Nigerian education occupies the starting point and background for other levels of education. Besides, it is through it, that an individual pupil is introduced, acquainted and acquires the rudimentary knowledge, skills and attitude towards acquiring education up to the secondary school and even tertiary institutions. Primary education as referred to in the National Policy on Education (NPE), is the education given in institutions for children aged 6-1 1 plus (FRN, 2012). It is the first stage and compulsory education. Primary education is preceded by preschool or nursery education and followed by secondary education. The primary education is the first six years of the nine years of basic education using the Universal Basic Education (UBE) standard. This stage of education is often addressed as elementary education. In most countries of the world, primary education is compulsory for children to receive although it is permissible for parents to provide it.
The place of primary education is very paramount because it is the foundation of adults’ contribution to developmental processes. In other words, basic education makes a child a better adult. Primary education is to the educational system; and the nation at large, what the mind is to the body.
According to Quadri (2001) the Section 4, page 12 of the National Policy on Education (2004) described primary education as the “education given in an institution for children aged normally between 6 years to 11 years plus.” The primary education level is the key to the success or failure of the whole educational edifice because the rest of the educational system is built upon it. Primary education according to the National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004) is likened to the key which opens to success or failure of the whole educational system. Akande (2010) reiterated Njoku (2000) regarded primary education as very vitaland fundamental to all types of education any person can receive in life.
Primary education is the foundation of formal education. It is an essential component in the echelon of educational system of every nation. In order to qualify for other levels of education one must first pass through primary schools, as such it is an institution upon which all other levels of education and educational achievements are built. It prepares the mind and trains the child for higher and tougher academic pursuits. It provides young learners with the fundamentals of reading, writing, skill acquisition, information and attitudes necessary for proper adjustment into the society. Unfortunately, though not all recipients of primary education get to other levels.
In the teaching of pupils in Primary school, English language occupies the role of both language of instruction and as one the core and compulsory subjects that the students must undergo. The importance of language to man is great. Language is one of man’s most remarkable attributes. It is an absolute precondition for nearly all our social life, and it is the medium in which most organized thought and communication proceed.Highlighting the importance of language to man, Adetugbo (1980) states that “all human societies and institutions are made possible only by man’s possession of language”.
Odusina (1989) in his view observes that “without language, there would be mental isolation and thought stagnation in interaction either”. Closely related to this, Obanya (1981) said that language is seen as “man’s most important gift, the vehicle for communication and a good instrument for thought and creativity”. For Pickering and Hoeper (1990) language is, “the means by which the writer controls and influences the reader”. Language is so important in teaching and learning process such that the Nigerian government appreciates it as a means for promoting social interaction and national cohesion (FRN, 2004).
English language is a language of communication in Nigerian society. It is a language of medium instructions, as a Lingual Franca, useful in all facets of lives in Nigeria. English as a second language is useful between the encoder and decoders. It is a language meant for a medium of communication by instructors (teachers) in the school. English is a compulsory subject to be taken to qualify students to enter the universities, and to pass WASSCE NECO, NABTEB and other public examinations. English carries our major instruments of communication in various ministries, parastatals, universities, business centre, cyber café, embassies, airports, seaports, and in our major highways. The original owners of English language were the natives of Britains or United Kingdom which comprises of Wales in Queen Elizabeth, domain, Scotland among the Scottish, North Ireland and among the English people of England. English language gradually became an international language through the act of colonization of British in an attempt to explore the whole worlds (Oribabor, 2014).
The English language is an essential pre-requisite for propelling educational wheel of Nigeria. Joseph and Joshua (2010) added that the government having recognized the importance of English language for enhancing educational attainment as well as for improving communicative competence and ability of citizens has made it a core and compulsory subject for all in Nigerian schools. The English language continues to be a medium of instruction for all subjects from primary level to tertiary level in so many countries including Nigeria. It is a medium of instruction, a compulsory and core subject that must be offered and passed at all levels of education in Nigeria’s educational system.
It is therefore obvious that without a thorough mastery of the language, it is not possible to have a sufficient firm grasp of what the learner has to learn. The knowledge of English language helps in understanding other school subjects since it is used to teach all other subjects except local languages. Good foundation of the language paves way to success in life. The knowledge of the content of school’s subject is transferred to the students at all levels of education via the English language medium. In spite of these, the English language achievement of the Nigerian school students has been on a steady decline over the years. An online article published on 6 January 2010 by News desk showed that the falling standard of education as exemplified by the falling performance of students at various examinations is alarming. This is leaving many stakeholders in the sector to wonder about the future of education in the country as well as the place of Nigeria in the 21st century when competitors among countries will not be defined based on endowment of natural resources alone but more importantly on the competitiveness of their human capital (David, 2012).
Formal education in Nigeria today is a product of English Language. Without English, there is the possibility that there may not be anything more than elementary formal education in Nigeria. English language is a major school subject in Nigerian Educational system. It is not only the medium of instructions at all levels of education in Nigeria but also a pre-requisite to entering into post-primary and secondary institutions; Muhammed (2005) Despite the importance of English Language, the primary school pupils uses and performance in English Language has not been encouraging.
Many scholars and specialists in the English language field have had to ask questions pertaining to the low level of proficiency and performance of primary school pupils in the various aspects of English Language and in English Language examinations sometimes, they blame it on the individual background, mother tongue interference, comprehension problem, social factor, individual differences, etc. For instance, Eze (2004) in his opinion stated that “the poor performance of students in English Language examinations can be attributed to their inability to interpret written language and also answer comprehension questions in their own words” Obayan (2003) also agreed with the above where he said that students can do well in English Language examination if only they can be able to answer the questions in their own words and avoid needless lifting which results to vague answers.
Various researchers especially in English Language have teaching an learning of English language is determined by a number of variables such as family, schools, society and motivation factors, (Aremu & Joken 2003; Aremu Oluwole 2001). Gillian and Gillian (2002) observed that social factors such as parents’ educational attainments have been found to be more important than economic factors in explaining children’s educational outcomes.
The teaching and learning of pupils in English Language has been found to be strongly associated with factors such as the home, literacy environment, teachers’ teaching styles and investments in resources that promote learning such as quality child care, educational materials and excursion to education resources (Shonkoff & Philips, 2000). Other factors include spa renting which in turn affect their children’s development and educational achievement. High level of illiteracy, poverty and low social status coupled with high rate of paternal and maternal deprivation, lack of money to purchase necessary textbooks, working materials and school fees for their children. These ugly situations have made some young school pupils to drop out of school and to engage in subsistence life by becoming house- helps or engaging in other menial jobs to support their academic pursuit.
The fact that primary school occupies the foundation of education in our educational sector and it carries out great roles in teaching . and knowledge acquisition of the pupils, therefore this study is intended to investigate the factors affecting the teaching and learning of English is Primary School in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State.
Statement of the Problem
As the primary school undoubtedly forms the crux of education in Nigeria SO the English language is the core and compulsory subject that must be learnt by all the primary school pupils. In the course of teaching the subject there tendencies are that the teacher confront some difficulties since the subject is neither the pupils’ nor the teachers’ first language. This problem could probably be part of the reasons why the researchers carried out various researches on variables related to English Language.
For instance, researchers such as Chapman and Pascarella (1983) studied the relationship between institutional types, class size, academic attainment and social integration in eleven institutions. They discovered that students who attend residential schools perform better academically than those who do not. Also, Ywnne and Sayibo (1998) emphasized that students level of performance in English Language depends largely on socio economic background and that high school student’s level of performance are linked to their gender and socioeconomic background among other factors.
Botts, Reuben and Dannenberg (2000) agreed that differences in students’ socio-economic background are responsible for much of the difference in students’ performance in English Language. Akande (2007) studied socio-economic factors influencing students’ performance in Nigeria using some explanations from local survey. Ipaye (1996) discovered that poverty imposed a lot of challenges on parents making them unable to cater for the academic needs of their children which eventually has terrible effects on the students’ performance in public examinations.
Though the low performance of the Primary school pupils in English Language may be as correlation of social factors such as home background, gender, age, parents’ social status, ethnicity, school ownership, religion among others but the extent to which these factors affect their performance in English language is not certain. This study therefore examines the factors affecting the teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School in Ilorin West Local Government, Kwara State.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to examine the factors affecting the teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School in Ilorin West Local Government, Kwara State. Specifically, the study will find out whether:
a. Attitude of teacher affects teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School.
b. Government attitude affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School
c. Availability of instructional materials affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School
d. Methodology of teaching affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School
e. Infrastructural facilities affects affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School
Research Questions
Based on the problem and purpose highlighted above, the flowing research questions have been drawn to guide the conduct of this research:
a. Is there any influence of Attitude of teacher affects teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School?
b. Is there any influence of Government attitude affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School?
c. Is there any influence of Availability of instructional materials affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School?
d. Is there any influence of methodology of teaching affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School?
e. Is there any influence of infrastructural facilities affects affect teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School?+
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses will be tested in this study:
f. There is no significant influence, attitude of teacher1 as factor affecting teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School
g. There is no significant influence Government attitude as a factor affecting teaching and’ learning of English Language in Primary School.
h. There is no significant influence of availability of instructional materials as a factor affecting .teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School.
i. There is no significant influence methodology of teaching as a factor affecting teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School.
Scope of the Study
This study intends to examine the factors affecting the teaching and learning of English Language in Primary School in Ilorin West Local Government, Kwara State. The respondents for the study would all primary school teachers from both the private and public schools under Ilorin West Local Government area of Kwara State.. Purposive sampling techniques would be employed to select primary school teachers from twenty private and ten public schools under Ilorin West Local Government areas. Researcher designed questionnaire would be prepared to elicit information for the study. The statistical tools of Chi square will the research hypotheses in the study.
Operational Definition of Terms
Parental ethnic groups: Hausa, lgbo and Yoruba
Parental education: NCE/OND, FIND/First Degree, Master Degree, Ph.D.
Parental literacy: Parent that can read with at least SSCE certificate are literate and Parent that cannot read with at least SSCE certificate are literate
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study would be of immense benefits to students, teachers, parents, guidance and counselors, school administrators and policy makers. This might be facilitated by making the study available in places where the public could gain access to it, (e.g. the library, internet, media houses) and so on.
The findings of the study might provide tangible information to the primary school teachers in order to forge the family—school linkages through communicating effectively with pupils’ parents about school strategy of enhancing the pupils’ knowledge of English language.
The finding of this study might help the school administrators to involve and encourage parents to provide resource person on learning of English Language at home that can teach students the more thereby improving the students’ academic performance.
Pointedly, school counselors (if available) in the school would be better informed on factors determining students academic performance in school and strategies to improve the students’ attitude towards learning English Language as a subject in the primary schools.
Finally, the outcome might also, assist the government at all levels to understand background factors that cannot be under estimated in pupils’ learning acquisition is English Language and prepare a plane grand for governmental intervention through equipping the school libraries, building more classrooms, attractive salaries for the teachers and others.

EDITOR SOURCE: Factor Affecting The Teaching And Learning Of English Language In Primary Schools (A Case Study Of Some Secondary Schools In Ilorin West Local Government Area Of Kwara State)

THE EFFECT OF MOTIVATION OF LABOUR, COST AND PRODUCTIVITY ON NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY (A CASE STUDY OF MARLUM CONSTRUCTION COMPANY, BENIN)





ABSTRACT
This study was intended to evaluate the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on Nigerian construction industry. This study was guided by the following objectives; To examine the factors which motivate employees to perform in the organization, To look at various techniques of motivating people to performance in the construction industry, To ascertain the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on workers in the construction industry of Nigeria, To identify the problems associated with the motivation of workers in the construction industry of Nigeria, To suggest the solutions to such problems, if any, Finally, to improve people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour.
The study employed the case study design; questionnaires in addition to library research were applied in order to collect data. Primary and secondary data sources were used and data was analyzed using the simple percentage mean and chi-square (X2) statistical tool at 5% level of significance which was presented in frequency tables and percentage. The respondents under the study were 160 respondents of Marlum construction company Benin.
The study findings revealed that there is a positive relationship between the quality of supervision and motivation to work; this implies that workers being conscious of the management supervisory role will put in their best to work. Many of the workers in the company are not happy with the fringe benefits, which they get from the company.
This study will educate the management of the organization (especially construction companies in Nigeria) on how to motivate their workers to productivity.


INTRODUCTION
Human resource management is of strategic importance when it comes to industries that are labour intensive like construction industry. The effective management of human resource is the key towards achieving the higher construction workforce productivity thus accomplishing the construction projects within their predefined limits. The bond between motivation and productivity is widely accepted and of high significance as well. The relationship between motivation and productivity can be summarized as that productivity is directly linked to motivation, and motivation is, in turn, dependent on productivity. Suitable motivation of labour can be hypothesized as a key contributor to maximizing workers’ productivity Kazaz et al (2008. Workers need motivation just as equipments need fuel and operators. Motivation is a process which activates productivity. In order to effectively manage the human resources and to make sure that workforce is productive enough; it is necessary to understand those factors which have edge over others for motivating the construction workforce. In this study, the potential of organizational and economic factors will be studied for motivating employees.
There were several studies which explored the relationship between motivational factors and construction workforce productivity around the globe but there was a scarcity of this work in the local environment of Nigeria. The construction industry plays an important role in the development of the economy of the country. Construction industry is an area influenced by many different factors such as labour, material, equipment and construction methods etc. Among these factors, human resources come first without which, other resources would not be utilized or transformed into productive use. Any improvement in labour productivity would contribute a great deal to the improvement of the overall productivity as identified by Hashim (1995). The motivation concept is generally defined as a composition of powers and mechanisms which help to direct human behavior in a desired manner, or with a more specific context it is described as the all convincing and encouraging actions which help workers fulfill their tasks willingly and to come closer to project objectives. Motivation of the labour force is of paramount importance because the quality of human performance at the workplace depends largely upon motivation. That is, higher motivation brings higher productivity which is suggested by Kazaz et al (2008). According to most researchers there is a positive relationship between motivation and productivity. This means that when motivation increases, a rise in productivity is also expected. This reflects the belief that an increased motivation level causes an increase in productivity. Achieving the results demands that an adequate quality of inputs is provided in this first place and improved construction workforce productivity means a better input and this it will help contractors to be more competent and profitable whilst executing their jobs.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Construction companies exist for the purpose of rendering some services. For the organization to meet its objectives, people are employed in the organization in order to help the organization meet its objectives. Thus, in order to ensure that people employed in the organization perform optimally towards the realization of organizational goals, they need to be motivated to work.

Motivating people to work entails meting their needs. There is a great controversy over the issue of motivating people.
Some people are of the view that such extrinsic factors like money, praise, and quality of supervision and company’s policy can motivate people to work, while others are of the view that such extrinsic factors like advancement quality of the job done by person, recognition and growth can motivate workers to productivity.
It is in view of these controversies that this study wants to look at the motivation of employees in the organization by using MarlumConstruction Company as a case study; and in doing this, the following questions arise:

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.
This research work hopes to achieve the following objectives:
1. To examine the factors which motivate employees to perform in the organization
2. To look at various techniques of motivating people to performance in the construction industry
3. To ascertain the effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on workers in the construction industry of Nigeria.
4. To identify the problems associated with the motivation of workers in the construction industry of Nigeria.
5. To suggest the solutions to such problems, if any.
6. Finally, to improve people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
It is in view of the above problems that the following questions arise:
1. What are the factors that motivate employees to perform in the construction industry of Nigeria?
2. What are the available techniques of motivating employees for higher productivity?
3. Do motivation of labour, and cost actually steer employees productive capacity?
4. What are the problems militating against employees motivation, and
5. How can these problems of employees’ motivation be addressed in order to improve productivity in the construction sector of Nigeria?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses will be tested in this study:
1. Ho: The quality of supervision will not motivate workers productivity.
Hi: The quality of supervision will motivate workers productivity.
2. Ho: A worker’s perception of what obtained in his organizational will not motivate him to greater productivity.
Hi: A worker’s perception of what obtained in his organizational will motivate him to greater productivity.
3. Ho: A worker’s perception of organizational appraisal policy will motivate him to greater productivity.
Hi: A worker’s perception of organizational appraisal policy will not motivate him to greater productivity.
4. Ho: The worker’s satisfaction with its fringe benefits will not motivate him to greater productivity.
Hi: The worker’s satisfaction with its fringe benefits will motivate him to greater productivity.


1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will educate the management of the organization (especially construction companies in Nigeria) on how to motivate their workers to productivity.
The findings of this study will generate people’s interest in researching into other areas of motivation in the organization will enrich the literature on motivation as a phenomenon.
Finally, the study hopes to enrich people’s knowledge in this area of organizational behaviour and management of people in the organization.

1.7SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study is on effect of motivation of labour, cost and productivity on the construction industry of Nigeria. The study will also covers the various techniques of motivation and theories of motivation as they impact on employees productivity in an organization.

1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
The following terms were defined as used in this study:
Productivity: Is the ratio of output or production capacity of the workers in an organization. It is the relationship between the amount of one or more inputs and the amount of outputs from a clearly identified process.
Employees: are the workers in an organization, working for the accomplishment of the organizational goals. In this study, the employees are those staffs of the organization,
Motivation: Motivation is a decision-making process, through which the individual chooses the desired outcomes and sets in motion the behaviour appropriate to them".
Adequate Motivation: These are factors (familiarity, concern and driving force), which exist or are provided in a work situation either physically or psychologically which determine the input and productivity level of the worker.
Intimacy: Intimacy or Familiarity could be described as the feeling of warmth and friendliness based on interpersonal relationship among people.
Consideration: Consideration or Concern refers to a situation where both their colleagues and managers treat staffs with understanding. In this case, there is both a personal and human touch in dealing with workers.
Morale: Moral refers to staff emotional and mental level of zeal.


EDITOR SOURCE: The Effect Of Motivation Of Labour, Cost And Productivity On Nigerian Construction Industry

ASSESSMENT OF RISK ON ROAD PROJECTS IN NIGERIA CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY (A CASE STUDY OF LAGOS METROPOLIS)



Consequences of uncertainty and its exposure in a project, is risk. In a project context, risk is the chance of something happening that will have an impact upon objectives. It includes the possibility of loss or gain, or variation from a desired or planned outcome, as a consequence of the uncertainty associated with following a particular course of action. (Deviprasadh, 2007). Risk thus has two elements: the likelihood or probability of something happening, and the consequences or impacts if it does. Managing risk is an integral part of good management; it is fundamental to achieving good business and project outcomes and the effective procurement of goods and services Risk management provides a structured way of assessing and dealing with future uncertainly. Project risk management includes the processes concerned with identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risk. It includes maximizing the results of positive events and minimizing the consequences of adverse events." (Deviprasadh, 2007).
Project Management Institute (2004) defines project risk as an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or a negative effect on at least one project objective, such as time, cost, scope, or quality. A risk may have one or more causes and, if it occurs, one or more impacts Construction projects vary in type and nature and a large number of people with professional skills. The variations are endless, but what all projects have in common is their exposure to risk (Flanagan and Norman, 1999).
Civil engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal environment, providing facilities for living, industry and transportation, including large buildings, roads, bridges, canals, and other engineered constructions (Stark, 2008). It is characterized by its high magnitude, uncertainties and the level of risk involved (Seeley and Murray, 2001). Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, it is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering. Coastal engineering, surveying, and construction engineering. (Oakes 2001).
Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies (ICE, 2007), Civil engineering was first introduced as a profession in 1828 and the Royal charter of the Institute of Civil Engineers (2007) defined civil engineering as the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns (ICE, 2007). Construction engineering is a civil engineering sub discipline that involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation (Wikipedia, 2011). The modes of transportation as identified by Lam (1999) are roadways, railways, waterways, and airways. A road is a route on land between two places which typically has been paved or other wise improved to allow travel by some conveyance (Wikipedia, 2011).
Cost overruns and delays are not unusual in civil engineering works. This pattern of risk is' largely influenced by the financial structure of the projects (Lam, 1999).
During limes of foreign exchange and interest role fluctuations, most conventional projects funded by direct capital injection from the governments may be affected by cost increases in their imported elements. The use of project finance in privatized projects also means that lenders rely solely on the prospective income stream for repayment of their loans. Late completion will erode the financial plan and extra interest costs on the part of the sponsors. There are also uncertainties as to the level and stability of income which depends on the market condition of the product in question. In road project, land acquisition can be a slow and expensive process especially when a long road has to go through different municipalities or different provinces having non-standardized land resumption procedures. Right of way disputes sometimes creep in, as is the likelihood of treading on archeological mines and former industrial site with contaminated grounds (Lam, 1999).
There are many examples of non-achievement of time, cost and quality of projects due to the absence of risk management techniques in project management. Therefore, the success parameters of a construction project, namely, the timely completion, staying within the specified budget, and achieving requisite performance would depend upon the capability of each party in risk management. (Perera, 2009).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
As construction and engineering projects increases in complexity, the magnitude of risk involved for all the parties involved increases, from the clients, to contractors, architects, quantity surveyors, engineers, investors, and financial institutions (Seeley & Murray, 2001). Risk has been studied by different researchers (Farinloye 2009: Onukbwe 2009; Dada and Jagboro, 2007; Baker 1999; Perera et al, 2009) in the light of the influence it has made in decision making in the construction industry and the techniques that could be used by the design and construction team in the management of risk on construction projects.

Farinloye et al., (2009) assessed the construction professional's perception of risk impact on cost of building projects and concluded that completion delay is the risk variable that has the highest probability of occurrence and this risk has the second highest impact on construction cost. Onukwube et al., (2009) also assessed risk in the light of the impact it has on contractors' pricing in building projects and concluded that inadequate cash flow had a significant impact on contractors pricing of building projects. These studies were limited to building projects in Nigeria and no attempt was made to cover road projects.
Dada and Jagboro (2007) carried out an evaluation of the impact of risk on project cost overrun; they identified the risk factors inherent in different building procurement methods and assessed their impact on project cost. However, this study was limited to risk factors in relation to building procurement methods and the impact on cost. Baker et al., (1999) examined the risk response techniques employed for major projects and they concluded that the construction industry concentrates almost exclusively on reduction of financial risk. Perera et al., (2009) also assessed risk in civil engineering construction, they identified the risk responsibilities of contractual parties’ in order to improve their risk handling strategies but the study was limited to road construction in Sri Lanka.
Therefore, this study becomes vital to fill the gaps identified above as the research works identified did not cover the impact of risk on road projects in Nigerian Construction industry. In the light of this, the following research questions are raised:
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. What are the risk factors inherent in road project?
ii. What are the effects of risk on the duration of road?
iii. How do these factors affect the total construction cost of road project?

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this research is to examine the impact of risk on road projects in Nigerian construction industry. The specific objectives are to;
i. Identify and assess the various risk factors associated with road project in Nigerian construction industry.
ii. Determine the effect of risk factors on cost of road project in the study area.
iii. Determine the effect of risk factors on completion time of road project in the study area.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Civil engineering works encompass a wide range of different projects which are of great magnitude. Vast cuttings and embankments, mass and reinforced concrete structures, large structural steel construction, reservoirs, sewage schemes, piling for heavy foundations, harbor works, dry docks, roads, canal and railways, all form subject matter of civil engineering contracts.
These works require considerable skill and technical knowledge in both their design and construction. Continual changes in nature and methods of construction in these projects, and the increasing size and complexity of these works increases the risk involved (Seeley & Murray, 2001). Road projects however often confront many uncertainties, due to factors such as resource availability, the physical, economic and political environments, statutory regulations, etc.(Perera et al., 2009). According to Wang and Chou (2003), such risks have a significant effect on the outcome of a road construction process.
Assessing risk offsets negative impact it may have and pursue positive impact (PM1, 2004). The study therefore becomes necessary to identify the impact of risk on road projects with a view to providing information to construction professionals in reducing to the barest minimum the risk associated with road projects in Nigeria.
1.6 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study focused on the assessment of the impact of risk on road projects in Nigeria. The study was restricted to federal and state roads in Lagos state.
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The approaches that were adopted to achieve the stated objectives include the following: primary and secondary data source.
The primary source of data was generated through questionnaire survey administered to construction professionals in civil engineering construction and consulting companies, and professionals that coordinate road project in the federal and state ministries in the study area. The survey was carried out in order to assess the risk-factors inherent in road projects in terms of their degree of severity and assess their impact on total cost and duration of the project.
The secondary source of data included reports such as published textbooks, refereed conference proceedings; dissertation or theses and government publications which focus on the theme of the research.

EDITOR SOURCE: Assessment Of Risk On Road Projects In Nigeria Construction Industry

ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION ON CITRUS IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN BENUE STATE



Citrus fruits constitute vital fruit crop with highest value in terms of international trade. The market for citrus fruit consist of the fresh fruit market and the processed citrus fruits market which involves mainly of orange juice. Oranges account for most of the citrus production but significant quantities of pomeloes, grapefruits, lemons and limes are also grown. According to (UNCTAD), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the growth in the production of citrus is attributed predominantly to high consumer demand and preference for healthy foods, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and increase in cultivation areas. Changes in production were projected for the period of year 2000 to 2010 since high production levels have slowed the rate of new plantings. The New production strategy shows that the Productivity of citrus groves can be reserved at pre-Huanglongbing levels through a three pronged strategy with the aim of giving the greatest yields for the lowest costs. This is necessary as a result of the increased per acre cost of caretaking brought upon by Huanglongbing infection. The commercial citrus caretaker is therefore forced to spray his/her block of citrus several more times a year than normal, higher cost. Consequently the cost price of citrus per pound increase considerably .Therefore the price per pound of citrus must continue to increase in other for the business of citrus to remain profitable due to disease pressure.

Currently the use of Foliar fertilizers are spread on citrus trees at considerably higher rates than before for high yield production. Pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice is required for production efficacy.



Due to citrus green disease, the production of citrus nurseries in commercial quantities were relocated indoors so as provides clean citrus trees for the planting of citrus groves.

Citriculture production practices which constitute the new best management practices for commercial citrus growers against the citrus greening disease fight include vector control, foliar nutrition, and certified young trees .The research therefore proffer an Assessment of agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state



1.2 Statement of the Problem

Citrus fruits constitute vital fruit crop with highest value in terms of international trade. The markets for citrus fruit consist of the fresh fruit market and the processed citrus fruits market which involves mainly of orange juice. Oranges account for most of the citrus production but significant quantities of pomeloes, grapefruits, lemons and limes are also grown. According to (UNCTAD), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, the growth in the production of citrus is attributed predominantly to high consumer demand and preference for healthy foods, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and increase in cultivation areas. However the economic cost of implementing the new production method for citrus commercial quantities is high. This is due to the increasing cost of pesticides spray to combat the deadly citrus disease Huanglongbing (HLB), called citrus greening. Currently the use of Foliar fertilizers are spread on citrus trees at considerably higher rates than before for high yield production. Pesticide application timing, and pesticide choice is required for production efficacy. The problem of the research therefore centers on the Assessment of agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state.



1.3 Objectives of the Study

To proffer an Assessment of agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state



Citrus fruits constitute vital fruit crop with highest value in terms of international trade. The market for citrus fruit consists of the fresh fruit market and the processed citrus fruits market which involves mainly of orange juice. Oranges account for most of the citrus production



1.4 Research Questions

What is citrus production?

What is the agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing?



What is the agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue State?





1.5 Significance of the Study

The studies proffer an Assessment of agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state



1.6 Research Hypothesis

Ho Citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state is not effective



Hi Citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state is effective





1.7 Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the Assessment of agricultural information on citrus improved technologies production and marketing in Benue state



1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study was confronted by some constraints including logistic and geographical factors

1.9 Definition of Terms

CITRUS FRUIT

Citrus fruits constitute vital fruit crop with highest value in terms of international trade.The market for citrus fruit consist of the fresh fruit market and the processed citrus fruits market which involves mainly of orange juice. Oranges account for most of the citrus production but significant quantities of pomeloes, grapefruits, lemons and limes are also grown.

EDITOR SOURCE: ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION ON CITRUS IMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN BENUE STATE

BOOK KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISE WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON P.A. WATER, UGHELLI, UGHELLI NORTH LGA OF DELTA STATE




Every organisation, whether small, medium or big is established to achieve specific target objective. Such objective derived from adequate returns on investment and the ability of the organisation and or, its representatives maximally provide social service that would meet the immediate and long term needs of its environment or community.
In order to actualize set objective, organisation employ adequate and effective accounting records as well as employ the services of available resources (human or non-human) towards actualizing dreams.
Virtually, every organisation and business minded individuals take proper records of it’s activities. This is to enable team measure or ascertain the level of success or failure recorded in the organisation at a specified period of time. Consequent upon this, one may ask, how adequate, accurate and reliable are feese records especially they are not taken by a professional book-keeper or accountant?
Keeping of records is not only required but also vital any organisation. According to Alayide (2009); inadequate records or failure to bring the accounting records up-to-date usually leads to commitment of errors and fraudulent practices. As such, organisation whether in the private or in public sector, really requires the services of a qualified and certificated accountant or book-keeper.
Organisation need to employ the services of professional accountants and or, book-keepers in order to:
Keep all accounting records.
Set up sound accounting records for staff to follow.
Assist them to keep in closing the books of account where there is difficulty and or discrepancy.
Prepare and-of-year account or financial report systems to facilitate clients efficiency in processing management information and controlling of operation.
Write up accounting and administrative procedure manuals.
Ensure adherence to the internal deck system, and so on.
Wanogho (2006) opined that the services of the accountant to organisation and individuals among others includes;
Drafting of financial statement incorporating profit and balance sheet for companies.
Preparation of management account on a regular basis and for whatever period e.g. yearly, quarterly, six monthly, daily etc.
Preparation of accounts for specialized area as trust non-profit making organisation charities and pension schemes.
Maintenance of computerized record of clients book of prime entry from the information supplied.
Preparation of necessary financial information.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The importance of book-keeping and accounting in a profit making organisation can not be over emphasized or underestimated. But some small scale enterprises have been faced with some problems which resulted to their winding-up.
These problems are as listed here under:
Lack of permanent and systematic records for financial transaction by accounting professionals that will ascertain whether the business has make profit or loss in an accounting period.
Accounts prepared at best are single entry and feese account proper information regarding assets are lacking.
Accounts prepared by non-professional have no safeguards for fraud and errors.
Final accounts prepared are not reliable and cannot be acceptable for tax proposes.
Accounts prepared does not take into cognizance of issues relating provision for doubtful debt and depreciation.
Financial statement prepared cannot be compared between periods because the bases of preparation is faulty.
To this end, the study is embarked upon to address these problem identified.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION
For the purpose of getting relevant responses, the study hereby formulates the under-listed hypothesis.
To what extent can it be said that booking keeping and accounting practices and services are employed in small scale business organisation?
To what extent can it be said that book keeping and accounting functions are preformed by experts in small scale business organisation?
To what extent is the application and expertise use of book keeping and accounting of small scale business organisations achieve the expected goals?
What are the major problems faced by business without the use of professional accountants or book-keepers?

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The major purpose of the study is to highlight book-keeping and accounting practices in small scale enterprise. The study will be of a great aid to private organisations, both large and small scales to enlighten them on the importance of book-keeping or recording the day-to-day activities information in profit making organisation and also to find possible suggestions of stressing the importance of book-keeping through seminars to our business organisations and officers managing these firms.

EDITOR SOURCE: BOOK KEEPING AND ACCOUNTING PRACTICES IN SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISE WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON P.A. WATER, UGHELLI, UGHELLI NORTH LGA OF DELTA STATE

WRITING SUB-HEADS OF CHAPTER ONE ON THE RESEARCH PROJECT

The following sub-heads are always considered when writing chapter one in research work, all of them from the introduction of the project. They are:
1. Background of the study: this is a discussion that centers on the history of the area of the study to be research on. The modern research into that area should be discussed in the background of study. This is why the writer has to make a lot of review (reading) on different text relevant to his or her topic before writing the background of study. Such text may include: journals, bulletins, newspapers, conference papers, seminar papers, and modern textbooks.
2. Theoretical Framework: this is a specific review on the variables that are related to the construct (topic of the research). The writer will not make a general literature review in this unit because chapter two will take care of that but only major variables of the topic. Depending on the topic of the project, three (3) to four (4) theories are enough.
3. Statement of the problem: each construct on research topic is a problem. The writer has to state what he actually went to find out which occurs will be the result of his findings. The result of his findings should be relevant to the society and not what others have already concluded. If it is what others have already concluded, it means the writer has not done anything.
4. Purpose of the study: another name for purpose is reason. Every research studies should be purpose built. The purpose of any study has to do with what the research is aiming at in the study. Here, the writer has to specifically state why he wants to write on the selected topic and what he wants to achieve. For example: to determine the effect of soil erosion in Akamkpa Local Government Area.
5. Significant of the study: significance seeks to establish the necessity for the study. It has to do with the importance of the study.
6. A. Research Questions:
Research questions are questions that will guide the researcher in his findings. Questions are always very specific and specific answers are needed. The questions are framed after due considerations of the research topic, background, rational and significance of the study. As the name implies, they are purely questions that ask for the existing or purported relationship between the dependent and independent variables involve in the study.
B. Research Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a statement that expresses what may likely happen if a particular thing is done or action takes place.

7. Assumption of the study: this is what we assumed that it will happen if a particular action or thing is done. The assumption may be true or false.
8. Limitation of the study: these are obstacles or problems encountered during the research that may contribute to ineffective or substandard academic project.
9. Delimitation of the study: this is the scope within which the research will cover or will not go beyond.
10. Definition of terms: this should be the last sublevel of chapter one. These are the principle terms related to the topic most especially where those terms are different meanings to different people. Emphasis should be placed on operational definitions.

EDITOR SOURCE: WRITING SUB-HEADS OF CHAPTER ONE ON THE RESEARCH PROJECT

WRITING RESEARCH CHAPTER THREE, THE RESEARCH METHODS

1. Introduction: this chapter explains the different methods to be used in your research will form this chapter. Here it mentions the procedures and strategies the writer employed in the study such as research design, research area (area of the study), population of the study, etc.
2. Research Design: this has to do with the structure of the research instrument to be used in collecting data. It could be in sections depending on different variables that forms the construct for the entire topic of the research problems. A reliable instrument with a wrong research design will adversely affect the reliability and generalization of the research. The choice of design suitable for each research is determined by many factors among which are: kind of research, research hypothesis, scope of the research, and the sensitive nature of the research.
3. Research Area: this has to do with the geographical environment of the study area where the places is located, the historical background when necessary and commercial activities of that geographical area.
4. Population of the study: population is regarded in research work as the type of people and the group of people under investigation. It has to be specific or specified. Example: educational study teachers in lagos state. Once the population is choosen, the next thing is to choose the samples from the population.
5. Sample and sampling technique: it may not be possible to reach out the number of people that form the entire population for the study to either interview, observe or serve them with copies of questionnaire. To be realistic, the sample should be up to 20% of the total population. Two sampling techniques are popular among all the sampling techniques. These are random and stratified random sampling techniques. (A). in Random Sampling, the writers select any specific number from a place like school, village, etc. (B). In Stratified Random Sampling, one has to indicate a specific number from a stratum which could be a group of people according to age, qualification, etc. or different group from different location and different consideration attached.
6. Instrumentation: this is a device or different devices used in collecting data. Example: interview, questionnaire, check list, etc. instrument is prepared in sets or subsections, each set should be an entity thus asking questions about a particular variable to be tested after collecting data. The type of instrument used will determine the responses expected. All questions should be well set so as to determine the reliability of the instrument.
7. Validity and reliability of the instruments: this has to do with different measures in order to determine the validity and reliability of the research instrument. For example presenting the drafted questionnaire to the supervisor for scrutiny. Giving the questionnaire to the supervisor for useful comments and corrections would help to validate the instrument.
8. Administration of the instruments: here, the writer states whether he/ she administer the test personally or through assistant. He also indicates the rate of return of the copies of the questionnaire administered.
9. Scoring the instruments: here items on the questionnaire or any other device used must be assign numerical values. For example: 4 points to strongly agree, 3 points to agree, 2 points to disagree and 1 point to strongly disagree.
Table of Analysis

10. Methods of data analysis: Expert has recommended so many methods of testing and analyzing data such as: Pearson’s product moment correlation (PPMC), Spearman’s rank- Different correlation (SR), Related T-test, Chi-square and the contingency co-efficient, factorial design [n/b: when the population is large, we use PPMC and when the population is small, we use SR], Path Analysis, Independent T- Test, etc.
11. Method of getting data: Methods used to gather data include: questionnaire, observation, recording procedure, etc.

EDITOR SOURCE: Writing Chapter Three, Research Methods

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VISIT: Project Topics Ideas

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING YOUR PROJECT TOPICS


Be sure to pick a topic that will have enough information available. Do a preliminary search to see if there is enough information about your topic.
School project work is an essay that presents the results of a student’s research of a particular topic in print, electronic, or multimedia format. The skill involves finding, evaluating, and assimilating the ideas of other researchers and this is essential in any field of study. Unlike other essay writing, a research project work follows the same processes as other kinds of writing, from planning through drafting to revising, but the difference is that instead of relying exclusively on what you already know about a topic, you rather include source materials, facts, data, knowledge, or opinions of other researchers to support your research project works.
The writing of the final year project is one of the most challenging times that every student faces in their academic pursuits. It is not only because it is a definitive stage in their career, where they must demonstrate all their academic potential, but because they must create an idea that represents a contribution to the subject and can serve as an inspiration to other students and professionals.
The very and the most essential key to quality work is in the choosing of the project topic and In this article, we will discuss several tips that help to know how to choose research topics, especially in those fields of knowledge related to the social sciences, and humanities.

How To Choose A Good Research Topic
A supervisor may assign you a specific project topic, but most often supervisors require you to select your own final year project topics of interest. The ability to develop a research project topic is a very important skill, and when deciding on a topic, there are a few more things that you will need to do.
1. brainstorm for ideas
2. choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
3. ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
4. make a list of keywords
5. be flexible
6. define your topic as a focused research question
7. research and read more about your topic
8. formulate a thesis statement
Be aware of the fact that choosing a good research topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before choosing your school project topics, make sure you know what your final project should look like. Each supervisor will likely require a different format or style of research project work.
Use the steps below and it will guide you through the process of selecting a good research topic.

Brainstorm for topic ideas

Use the following questions to help generate project topic ideas. Choose a topic that wills interests you.
1. Do you have a personal issue, problem, or interest that you would like to know more about?
2. Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?
3. Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?
4. Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry or anxious?
5. Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy?

Look at some of the following topically oriented Web sites and research sites for ideas.
a. Are you interested in current events, government, politics, or the social sciences?
i. Try Punch or Vanguard
a. Are you interested in health or medicine?
i. Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center, or the National Library of Medicine
a. Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music?
i. Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities
a. For other subject areas try:
i. the Scout Report or the Nigerian Times/ College Web sites

Could these terms help or be useful in forming more focused project topic ideas? Write down any keywords or concepts that may be of interest to you.
Be fully aware of overused ideas when deciding on a topic. You may wish to avoid topics ideas such as, abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide except you feel you have a unique approach to the topic. Ask your supervisor for project topic ideas if you feel you are stuck or need additional guidance.


Read General Background Information
• Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you can’t find an article on your topic, try using broader terms, and ask for help from a librarian. Browse the Encyclopedia Africa for information on your topic ideas. Notice that both online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web sites. These are listed in the left or the right margins.
• Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal, or newspaper articles on your topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your school project topics of interest.
• Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently considered to be two of the best search engines to find web sites on the topic.

Focus on Your Topic Ideas

Note that a research topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or too narrow, just keep it manageable. One way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to limit a topic are:
• By geographical area
For example What environmental issues are most important in Southwestern Nigeria
• By culture
For example: How does the environment fit into the Ibibio world view?
• By the time frame:
For example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years?
• By discipline
For example: How does environmental awareness affect business practices today?
• By population group
For example: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?
Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too:
• Locally confined – Research project topics that are specifically may only be covered in these (local) newspapers, if at all.
Example: What sources of pollution affect the Oron water supply?
• Recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles may not be available, but newspaper or magazine articles may be. Also, Web sites related to the topic may or may not be available.
• Broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial information.
F or example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics, and society of the Southern states?
• popular - You will only find very popular articles about some undergraduate project topics such as sports figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.
If you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic, discuss the topic with your supervisor, or with a librarian

Make a List of Useful Keywords

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your project topic.
• Look for words that best describe your project topic
• Look for them when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general information
• Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for keywords to widen your search capabilities
• Make note of these words and use them later when searching for databases and catalogs

Try And Be Flexible

It is very common to modify your topic during your research process. You can never be sure of what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or manageable.
Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography, or another research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These important factors may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic. You supervisor will probably provide specific requirements, if not the table below may provide a rough guide:
Assigned Length of Research Paper or Project Suggested guidelines for approximate number and types of sources needed
1-2 page paper 2-3 magazine articles or Web sites
3-5 page paper 4-8 items, including book, articles (scholarly and/or popular), and Web sites
Annotated Bibliography 6-15 items including books, scholarly articles, Web sites, and other items
10-15 page research paper 12-20 items, including books, scholarly articles, web sites, and other items



Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question
You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word, and then begin to have questions about the topic.
For example:
Ideas = Emmanuel Nathaniel Mkpoikanke or modern architecture
Research Question = How has Emmanuel Nathaniel Mkpoikanke influenced modern architecture?
Focused Research Question = What design principles used by Emmanuel Nathaniel Mkpoikanke are common in contemporary homes?


Research and Read More About Your Final Year Project Topic
Use the keywords you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an important and complex part of the research process.

Formulate a Thesis Statement
Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and also a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that state precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about your topic.
The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.
For example, a thesis statement could be: Emmanuel Nathaniel Mkpoikanke's design principles, including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture opened a new era of African architecture. His work has influenced contemporary residential design.
The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose, and meaning of your research.
For example, a title could be: Emmanuel Nathaniel Mkpoikanke: Key Principles of Design For the Modern Home
Remember to follow any specific instructions from your supervisor.

Practical Exercises to Extend Your Learning
Identify three narrower aspects of the following broad project topics on Education. In other words, what are three areas you could investigate that fit into these very broad undergraduate project topics?
Sports
Pollution
Politics
Identify a broader topic that would cover the following narrow school project topics. In other words, how could you expand these school project topics to find more information?
Menus in Ikot Ekpene prisons
Urban planning in Flint
Imagine that you have been assigned the following undergraduate project topics. Think of at least five keywords you might use to look for information on each.
How does air quality affect our health?
What are the barriers to peace in the Middle East?
Should snowmobiling be allowed in wilderness areas?
How can welfare reform help poor children?


Tips: Refine Your Topic
Narrowing your subject to a more specific topic takes a bit of research and thought.
Here are some ideas to help you narrow your topic:
1. Talk to a friend to get ideas. They may give you ideas that didn't occur to you.
2. Use these questions:
o WHY did you choose the topic? What interests you about it? Do you have an opinion about the issues involved?
o WHO are the information providers on this topic? Who might publish information about it? Who is affected by the topic? Do you know of organizations or institutions affiliated with the topic?
o WHAT are the major questions for this topic? Is there a debate about the topic? Is there a range of issues and viewpoints to consider?
o WHERE is your topic important: at the local, national, or international level? Are there specific places affected by the topic?
o WHEN is/was your topic important? Is it a current event or a historical issue? Do you want to compare your topic by time periods?
3. Turn your topic into a question. You will be trying to answer this question with your research. Think about something you would like to try to prove or argue.
4. Make sure to pick a topic that will have enough information available. Do a preliminary search to see if there is enough information about your topic.

EDITOR SOURCE: Factors To Consider When Choosing Your Project Topics