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https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Static-Routing-Luminis.jpg

When the traffic traverse from one network to another, the network layer device, e.g., router needs to know about the destination network. It does not matter for the router how it gets the information about that destination, but it should be in the routing table of that router.

We can provide the information about the route to the router, either statically or dynamically. The routing process is almost similar in the IPv4 and IPv6. The routing protocols in IPv6 like RIPng (RIP New Generation), OSPFv3, EIGRP for IPv6, IS-IS for IPv6, MP-BGP4 (Multiprotocol BGP-4) have been redefined with the advance features of the IPv6.

In the small network, we can configure the routes statically on every router. But in the big network or networks, we use dynamic routing protocols which provide the information about the route to the router dynamically. You may want to know--How Does Route Selection Work in Cisco Routers?

The prime objective of the static or dynamic routing is to inform the router about the route or the network which are not connected or directly connected to that router.

Here we will discuss about static route in IPv6.

Enable IPv6 on the Router

When we apply IPv6 address on the interface of a router, that router becomes the member of the FF02::1 (All-IPv6 devices) and this router will be a IPv6 device only and will not be capable of forwarding the ICMPv6 Router Advertisement messages and routing protocols packets.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Router-and-IPv6-Router.jpg


After applying the command 'IPv6 unicast-routing' on the router, that router will become the member of FF02::2 (All-IPv6 routers). Now this router will be a IPv6-Router having the routing capabilities.

When a router receives a request to transfer the traffic for particular destination network which might be connected or not connected with that router, the router will check its routing table against the destination network.

If that destination network is connected to it, the router will forward the traffic on the interface which is indicating the destination network.

Otherwise if the destination network is not connected to that router, it will check its routing table for the destination network. When it finds that destination network is there in its routing table, it will then find who is the next router pointing that network. Then the router will forward that packet to the next router, and the next router will repeat the same process until they reach to the destination.

An example


A company, e.g., LuminisIndia.com having five routers and IPv6 addresses are configured on all the routers. All the routers used in the company should be able to communicate with each other. For achieving this objective, we are supposed to use only the static routing, no dynamic routing.

We will design the network of LuminisIndia.com in the GNS3. You can also use Packetracer or other network simulation software for this lab.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Static-Route-Topology-Final.jpg


The basic configuration difference between the static routing and dynamic routing is that in static routing we need to configure static route for all the destination routes or networks which are not directly connected to that router. But in dynamic routing we need to advertise only the routes or networks, which are directly connected.

For better understanding the concept of IPv6 static routing, we will noted down all the routes which are not directly connected to that specific router.

In this exercise we will get the clear idea of how many IPv6 static routes we need to configure on the specific router and it will also help us in troubleshooting.

From R1 perspective in the current topology, there are four networks which are not directly connected to R1 router. These networks are:

2001:23::/64
2001:34::/64
2001:35::/64
2001:36::/64

On R1 we need to configure four IPv6 static routes, which are not directly connected to R1 router.

R2’s routes which is not directly connected:

2001:34::/64
2001:35::/64
2001:36::/64

On R2, we need to configure three IPv6 static routes.

In the same manner we need to find out which routes are not directly connected to R3, R4, R5, and R6.

R3’s routes which is not directly connected:

2001:12::/64

R4’s routes which are not directly connected:

2001:12::/64
2001:23::/64
2001:35::/64
2001:36::/64
R5’s routes which are not directly connected:

2001:12::/64
2001:23::/64
2001:34::/64
2001:36::/64
R6’s routes which are not directly connected:

2001:12::/64
2001:23::/64
2001:34::/64
2001:35::/64
Now we have a clear understanding of which IPv6 static routes need to be configured on the particular router.

IPv6 Address Configuration

Assign the IPv6 address on the specified interface of the router R1 and make the 'up', with the commands are given below.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Address-Configuration-Command-on-Router-R1.jpg

Follow the same procedure for all the routers to assign IPv6 addresses to them and make them ‘up’.
We can verify the assigned IPv6 address on R1.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Command-on-Router-R1.jpg

You may use the same command to verify the assigned IPv6 address on each router.

Use 'IPv6 unicast-routing’ command for dynamic routing and ICMPv6 Neighbor Discovery on router R1.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Routing-enabling-Command-IPv6-Unicast-Routing.jpg

You must make a point to configure this command on each router.

You also can observe that after applying the command 'IPv6 unicast-routing' on the router, that R1 will become the member of FF02::2 (All-IPv6 routers).

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Command-on-Router-After-unicast-routing-R1.jpg

Configure IPv6 addresses and unicast routing on the router R2.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Address-Configuration-Command-on-Router-R2.jpg

We can check the status of the interfaces with the command ‘show ipv6 interface brief ‘

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Brief-Command-on-Router-R2.jpg

Enable IPv6 routing on router R2.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Routing-enabling-Command-IPv6-Unicast-Routing-on-Router-R2.jpg

Configure the IPv6 addresses and routing on the rest of the routers.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Brief-Command-on-Router-R3.jpg

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Brief-Command-on-Router-R4.jpg

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Brief-Command-on-Router-R5.jpg

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/Show-IPv6-Interface-Brief-Command-on-Router-R6.jpg

After the configuration of the IPv6 addresses and routing on each router, they are now ready for the configuration of the static routing.

IPv6 Static Route Configuration

On R1 four routes are not directly connected, we have to configure four IPv6 static routes on R1:

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/4-IPv6-Static-Routing/IPv6-Static-Routes-on-Router-R1.jpg

On R2 three routes are not directly connected to it, we have to configure three IPv6 static routes on R2:

Read The Full Article Here:

Learn How to Configure Static Route in IPv6
http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/164-learn-how-to-configure-static-route-in-ipv6

(Click the link given above)

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/Luminis-image.jpg

In the early 1990s, huge number of users come across the Internet and the use of IP addresses also increased. Soon the IETF realized, the existing IPv4 addresses will not be sufficient in the upcoming time. Then the new protocol was introduced as 'IPv6'.

IPv6 is 128-bits protocol, in the comparison of 32-bits of IPv4.

IPv6 has more than enough IP addresses for the growing Internet even today.

We discussed in detail about history and the need of IPv6 in our previous article http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/158-out-of-ipv4-addresses-it-is-time-to-reintroduce-ipv6-now .

Here in this article, we wish to introduce you to the various type of addresses in IPv6, as the whole addressing scheme of IPv6 is fundamentally very different from previous IPv4. Having a fair grasp over the types of addresses available in IPv6, you will find yourself in a relatively better position to understand the nuances of higher concepts pertaining to IPv6 implementation. Many of those we will share with you in our subsequent articles.

However, before I start the discussion on the different types of IPv6 addresses, I wish to bring your attention to 2-important aspects:

1. What does this 128-bits of IPv6 mean?
2. How can we change the prefix value in IPv6, as per the number of IP addresses we require?

Understanding the concept of 128-bits

As we all know that IPv6 is a 128-bits addressing scheme, but do we really know what does these mean within the context?

8 Sets x 4 Hexadecimal Numbers x 4 bits = 128 bits

It means --

1. 128-bits of IPv6 addresses, have 8 sets, where each set can have a maximum of 4 hexadecimal numbers, and each number is the combination of 4-bits.
2. Each of these 8 sets is separated by a colon :

Let us dig a little deeper.

The conversion from hexadecimal to binary, or vice-versa, is very easy. If you want to practice the conversion, with the help of below-given table you can do it easily, it depicts the decimal, binary, and hexadecimal numbers.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/Number-table-of-decimal-binary-hexadecimal.jpg

Number table of decimal binary hexadecimal

I took one IPv6 address and convert into binary in the example given below:

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/Hexadecimal-to-Binary-Conversion.jpg

Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

Here we have clearly plotted all the 128-bits of an IPv6 address. Right?

Well, regardless of the IP version of the address we use, it essentially contains two sections: network portion, and host portion.

In IPv4, you can use either the subnet mask or prefix, to represent the number of bits used for the network portion. But in case of IPv6, we can use only the prefix, to show the number of bits used for network portion.

Since various network designs places varying network size requirements, we practically need to choose among the prefix-length(s) available to us, w.r.t., the IP in question. Because the selection of right prefix-lengths is imperative to minimize the wastage of IP Addresses.

Prefix Length of IPv6 vs IPv4

For IPv4, the bits used for the network portion can be shown either in prefix or subnet mask. But for IPv6, we always represent it in the 'prefix' only.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/IPv4-IPv6-prefix.jpg

IPv4 IPv6 prefix

According to the number of IP addresses we require for our devices on the network, we need to know-- how many bits should we use for the network portion, and how any bits we need for the host portion. Also to minimize the wastage of IP addresses, we have to accomplish the process of subnetting.

The two charts exhibit the IPv4 and IPv6 for-- how we can change the prefix value as per the number of IP addresses we require.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/CIDR-Prefix-length-subnet-mask-Table.jpg

CIDR Prefix length subnet mask Table

For the better clarity about the prefix, you can see how to calculate the number of bits used for the network portion.

When we are using 4-sets out of 8-sets the IPv6 address, the prefix will be /64, and how that comes?

Each set is having 16-bits and 4-sets having 64-bits.

In the same manner, when we will consider 3-sets for network portion, then the prefix will be /48 and in 2-sets, it will be /32.

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/Calculate-Prefix-Length-in-IPv6.jpg

Calculate Prefix Length in IPv6

The above demonstration was to establish that it is very easy to calculate the prefix value for an IPv6 address.

Featured Article Out of IPv4 reintroduce IPv6
https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/2-IPv6/Featured-Article-Out-of-IPv4-reintroduce-IPv6.jpg
http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/158-out-of-ipv4-addresses-it-is-time-to-reintroduce-ipv6-now

IPv6 Address Types

IPv6 addresses lies in mainly any of the three categories:

Unicast
Multicast
Anycast
It all depends upon how the source wants to communicate with the destination. e.g.

READ FULL ARTICLE:

http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/161-a-visual-explanation-of-ipv6-address-types

https://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/1-IPv6/ipv6-Luminis-image.jpg

When two or more devices wants to communicate with each other they need unique ID on that network. Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are the unique numbers assigned to every computer or device that is connected to the Internet. Among other important functions, they identify every device connected to the Internet, whether it is a web server, smartphone, mail server, or laptop, etc.

After years of rapid Internet expansion, the pool of available unallocated addresses for the original Internet Protocol, known as IPv4, has been fully allocated to Internet Services Providers (ISPs) and users. That’s why we need IPv6, the next generation of the Internet protocol that has a massively bigger address space than IPv4.

IPv4 Connectivity with Internet


[img] http://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/1-IPv6/IPv4-Connectivity-with-Internet.jpg [/img]


A Brief History of IPv4 and IPv6

Internet Protocol was introduced first time in January 1980, as a standard in the RFC 760.

Motivation behind the RFC 760 was stated as given blow:

The Internet Protocol is designed for use in interconnected systems of packet-switched computer communication networks. Such a system has been called a "catenet" [1]. The internet protocol provides for transmitting blocks of data called datagrams from sources to destinations, where sources and destinations are hosts identified by fixed length addresses. The internet protocol also provides for fragmentation and reassembly of long datagrams, if necessary, for transmission through "small packet" networks.

IPv4 RFC 760
[img] http://luminisindia.com/images/Blog/InfoTech/1-IPv6/IPv4-RFC-760.jpg[/img]

[1] Cerf, V., "The Catenet Model for Internetworking," Information Processing Techniques Office, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, IEN 48, July 1978.

At the time of standardization of IPv4, the world population was around 4.41 billion in 1980. The ratio of IPv4 address to the world population was 1:1. In 1980, there was no www (world-wide web), no mobile devices, as the major devices were mostly mainframe and minicomputers.

IPv4 And Population Ratio In 1980

In fact, World Wide Web was introduced in 1990s, and soon everyone was getting on internet. Subsequently the IPv4 routing tables were growing so rapidly that it reached to 20,000 routes in 1994. IETF realized that it would soon run out of IPv4 address space.

In order to slow down the running out of IPv4 addresses, IETF introduced solutions—Short-term solutions as well as Long-term solutions

Short term solutions included:

NAT (Network Address Translation) & PAT (Port Address Translation)
Network Address Translation

Private Address Space
IPv4 Private IP Address Range

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
Classless Interdomain Routing CIDR

(Recently I published an article on the topic of : How to configure NAT & PAT on Cisco Router? You may like to visit to this fasinating article too.)

Long term solution was emphasized as IPv6, (e.g., 2001:ABDA:0000:0000:0000:0001:3635:4852)

Evolution in Internet Protocol

Graphical History of IPv4

IPv4 Evolution History

IPv5:

It was an experimental protocol and is no longer used, although some of the concepts it developed have been incorporated into other protocols.

Graphical History of IPv6

IPv6 Evolution History

Basic Questions about IP Addresses

Let us walk through with some basic questions that arise in our mind when we discuss about the IP addresses.

Q. What is an IP address?

IP address is a shorter way of saying ‘Internet Protocol address’. IP addresses are the numbers assigned to computer or device network interfaces. Most of the time, we use ‘name’ to access other device or resources on a network. In case of Internet we use URL e.g. www.example.com in the web browser, and behind the scene computer, however, translates that URL into the IP address of that destination.

Q. Why do we need IP addresses?

IP addresses play a major and essential role in the data transfer between the networking devices. In the absence of IP addresses, the networking devices like computers, servers, telephones, cameras, printers, etc. will not able to communicate with each other.

Without IP address, if we want to transfer the data between the devices, then we would have to do manually, with the help of CDs, DVDs, hard disks or flash storage, such as a USB drive. That will be just too cumbersome and possibly erroneous. Since IP addressing facilitates the network connectivity among all sorts of devices, we are able to send data to all directions or destinations so easily. We are daily performing a large number of tasks on our network and Internet conveniently just with a mouse ‘click’.

Featured Article New CCNA Cyber Ops

Q. What is the difference between a Private IP address and a Public (unique) IP address?

Before understanding the difference between the Private IP and Public IP, we need to have a very clear understanding about the Private network and the Public network.

Private network means, the network which belongs only to us personally (home, company, organization, campus, etc.) and the Public network means, the network which belongs to everyone or others as well like Internet.

At the protocol level, there is no difference between the public and private IP addresses. But organizationally, private addresses are distinct, because they can be used within single administration and not on the wider internet.

This is because private addresses are set aside for use by anyone without any global coordination. You can identify that an address is from a block of private addresses, if it:

Begins with 10. (i.e., 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255)
Begins with 172.16. through 172.31.
Begins with 192.168.
With the help of these private IP addresses, you cannot access the public network i.e. Internet. And when you find that your computer is assigned a private address, but you still are able to access services over the Internet, then it means that your computer is probably behind a Network Address Translator (NAT), which lets lots of computers share a single unique IP address.

I want to explain little bit about the distribution of the IP addresses in the next section.

Q. How are IP addresses distributed?

The distribution of the public IP addresses is managed by the registries or ISP and these address are allowed to be routed on the Internet.

For the distribution of IP addresses, the whole world is divided into the five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs).

Read Full Article:
[url] http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/158-out-of-ipv4-addresses-it-is-time-to-reintroduce-ipv6-now[/url]

I am Mr. Secure and run a business company. I used to feel secure due to having the basic security for data, network, and devices of my infrastructure. I believed that --

"No one will be interested in attacking on our data, network, and devices. So I need not to not worry about the security much and -- Why to waste a lot of money on securing all these? I am making money. My team is performing fantastically. My business growing."

"…. Why to make fuss about security? After all I have so many other more important things to do."

One fine day recently…. I, my team, and all the clients were not able to access our company website. We soon found that our network was breached, and our website had been hacked. All the important & confidential data of the company, website, and its users was in the hands of attackers (read, Hackers). This turned out to be a classic case of ransom, as they now wanted me to pay them _____ a certain amount of money, I was communicated that they, otherwise, would reveal or sell the data to my competitors. This left me with no choice, but to pay the money to attackers. So I had to pay the money to them and then I was granted back access to my own website & data.



But I was left wandering and worried about my business, users, information and other IT assets. I could no longer feel secure, in fact, I was apprehensive to realize that--

Yes, this can happen again! ... Any time!!

That night when I was sleeping, the Hacker GOD, appears in my dream. He started laughing loudly at me.

"Do you still think -- your business is really safe?," and he said, "Thank you, for paying the money. I now will be able to recruit more hackers in my team".

"The HACKING industry is growing very very rapidly. We now have highly professional attackers, and with the generous contributions of people like you…", he tells me, "We are hiring more hackers for The Attackers Army."

Hacking become an industry

"No business is really safe," he said, "See! Here is success of one attack, named Angler. How much did money it generated for us, of course from ransom? Angler is still earning money for us."

Angler attack

"We use highly advanced technologies, malware, professional attackers and other resources for attacking at our targets and we, indeed, can damage them severely."

Types of Maleware and Attack Techniques

"It is just like a trailer of the complete film," Hacker GOD says, "We will meet you again soon. Good Luck till then!"

I was gasping for my breath and it was the sound of alarm which came to rescue me. Thank God! It was a dream only. But I knew for sure that I need to do something, before this dream turns out to be a real-life business-nightmare again.

I knew any day, anytime this can happen again. I was terrified by the dream. Then I decided to build a proper security for my business and made it my first priority. Immediately, I started out searching for IT Security experts, and one of my friend recommended me about Cisco.

It prompted me to research about Cisco and its IT security offerings. Soon, I could gather the following data or facts about Cisco security.

Cisco Leader in Breach Detection

Cisco Market Recognition

My research made me progressively convinced of Cisco, as the leader among integrated IT Security systems.

I was compelled enough to contact and invite the Cisco Security Team to discuss about our security requirements.

Soon, one Mr. John, a Cisco Security Expert visited my office with his team.

"Hello, Mr. John! I need your help to secure our company data, network, and devices," I told them.

I also explained them about what had actually transpired with us lately.

Mr. John assured me that I need not worry much any longer. He also reinforced a point that hackers and cyber criminals, etc. have become much more organized than ever and are generating more sophisticated attacks. Our legacy technologies, devices and methods are not sufficient for defending against these attacks.

[center]Security is not optional, it's a requirement.[/center]

He enlightened me about why Cisco's integrated security solutions and services are so robust.

The following key market trends are heavily contributing to the IT security paradigm of today:

The whole world has gone mobile. It is expected that during 2013-2019, there will be 10x growth in mobile traffic.
There is ubiquitous access to Apps for mobile devices -- be it smartphones, tabs, laptops, etc. It is predicted that we will see 200 billion downloads of these apps in 2016.
There is huge rise of cloud computing and that is forcing companies to change their business models, architectures and service delivery.
Because of major developments in the field of IoT, there is massive increase in number of connected devices. It effectively means that a huge number of people are connected together, huge number of processes are connected together, unbelievably large quantum of data is being generated and shared, and of course, things (e.g. car, TV, watch, camera, and all short of devices).
All these market trends coupled with following dynamics of IT landscape are causing the actual security problems we are facing:

Changing Business Models
Dynamic Threat Landscape
Complexity and Fragmentation of IT solutions
Security challenges

All these factors are strong indicators of unprecedented growth in IT Security market:

Total Security market is projected to grow at the CAGR of 8.4% during the period 2015-2018, making it reaching at $95 Billion.
Total Security Product market is projected to grow at the CAGR of 6.4% during the period 2015-2018, making it reaching at $32 Billion.
Total Security Service market is projected to grow at the CAGR of 9.6% during the period 2015-2018, making it reaching at $63 Billion.
Mr. John further explained me --

Cisco believes that all above mentioned security challenges coupled with the fact that companies essentially need to maintain their operational focus, while dealing with severe shortage of talent among their IT personnel, would require much improved outcomes from their IT security infrastructure. Cisco points out that the security solutions have to embed the following key features in their offerings:

It must be visibility-driven.
It must be threat-centric.
It must be platform-based.
It must provide advisory services, along with integration services.
It must also provide the option of managed IT Security services.

READ MORE:
http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/151-how-cisco-saved-me-from-security-nightmares

Recently, the IEEE 802.3 committee published the 2016 version of the Ethernet Roadmap that highlights the slow progress of new Ethernet standards. It good to get some visibility here so that it can be included in your own design strategy.

The 2016 Ethernet Roadmap shows the latest developments in Ethernet and contains historical information as well as estimates for when future speeds may become available. The roadmap shows new technologies such as Flexible Ethernet (FlexE), new optical modules and 4-Pair PoE. Ethernet nomenclature is also explained and the Ethernet Ecosystem of consumer, residential, enterprise, campus, hyper-scale data center and service providers is revealed. The map is beautifully drawn and packed full of information.

Front of Map

EthernetRoadmapGraphic1

Back of Map

EthernetRoadmapCompleteEcoSystem

I think most network engineers and designers should keep a copy of this document in their favourite document storage system for reference but keep in mind that the IEEE 802.3 committee is slow, unpredictable and prone to endless delays. Add that into your planning.

S[b]peeds

Ethernet Roadmap Graphic-3

Nomenclature

Ethernet Roadmap Graphic-4[/b]

READ MORE:

http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/150-ethernet-roadmap-2016-all-graphics

[center][img][/img][/center]

Most routing protocols have metric structures and algorithms that are not compatible with other protocols. In a network where multiple routing protocols are present, the exchange of route information and the capability to select the best path across the multiple protocols are critical.

Administrative distance is the feature used by routers to select the best path when there are two or more different routes to the same destination from different routing protocols. Administrative distance defines the reliability of a routing protocol. Each routing protocol is prioritized in order of most to least reliable (believable) using an administrative distance value.

[img][/img]
Before we dive deep into the selection process of route for best path, I want to start from very basics first.

Suppose we have two PCs the they are directly connected with each other.

Two PCs Connected

The network starts to grow and we have more PCs.

PCs Connected with Switch1

Now we need a switch to connect them, but still they are in a single network. Network continuously growing and they also need to access the Internet or they need to connect to the other networks as well.

PCs Connected with Router


To establish the communication between the networks, we require router. The router maintains the routing table, and places the routes or networks in the routing table.

Processes Involved In Building And Maintaining The Routing Table

There are three processes involved in building and maintaining the routing table, particularly in a Cisco router:

1. Routing protocol
2. Routing table
3. Packet Forwarding decision

Routing protocol

Router builds routing table by collecting the information about the network or networks, which can be connected directly or remotely. Who will provide the information about these networks? For the directly connected networks router need not any routing protocol, it enters these network into routing table by its own. The networks which are not directly connected, router needs to learn by manually or with the help of routing protocols.

Building the Routing Table

The main considerations while building the routing table are:
Administrative distance (AD)− This is the measure of trustworthiness of the source of the route. If a router learns about a destination from more than one routing protocol, administrative distance is compared and the preference is given to the routes with lower administrative distance. In other words, it is the believability of the source of the route.

Metrics − This is a measure used by the routing protocol to calculate the best path to a given destination, if it learns multiple paths to the same destination. Each routing protocol uses a different metric.

Prefix length

[img][/img]
With the help of example, we will observe how these parameters are affecting in the building the routing table and packet forwarding decisions.

Route Selection in Same Prefix Scenario1 1

In this scenario on R1-R5, configured RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP simultaneously. Let us see how the router will work in this situation. Configure a Loopback interface (Loopback 1, with IP address 1.1.1.1/24) on each router, advertise this loopback on every router and in each routing protocol and also define a static route on R1 for the same.

Routing protocol configurations and Routing tables:

We will observe only the loopback route (1.1.1.1)

Observation 1:

In the output of the R1, we can see network 1.1.1.0/24 is advertised in EIGRP, OSPF, RIP, and static route. R1 will install the directly connected 1.1.1.0/24 and 1.1.1.1/32 in its routing table, reason is that AD of the directly connected route is lowest which is 0.

R1 Routing table
[img][/img][img][/img]

R2 is receiving the network 1.1.1.1 via EIGRP as 1.1.1.0/24 and via OSPF as 1.1.1.1/32. For R2 1.1.1.0/24 and 1.1.1.1/32 are the different routes, so it includes both are advertised by two different routing protocols.

R2 Routing table


R3 installed the directly connected 1.1.1.0/24 and 1.1.1.1/32 in its routing table.

R3 Routing table

R4 installed the directly connected 1.1.1.0/24 and 1.1.1.1/32 in its routing table.

R4 Routing table

R5 installed the directly connected 1.1.1.0/24 and 1.1.1.1/32 in its routing table.

R5 Routing table

Observation 2:

In the next steps, get ready to see the magic. R1 placed the 1.1.1.1/32 and 1.1.1.0/24 directly connected routes in the routing table. On R1 we also have configured static route for 1.1.1.0/24, turn off the loopback 1 on R1. Now R1 will give the entry to the 1.1.1.0/24 route learn by static route, due to the AD is lower than the any other routing protocol.

R1 Routing table static Route

Observation 3:

If we remove the static route on R1, it will place the 1.1.1.1/32 longest prefix length route in the routing table, which is learn by OSPF.

READ MORE:
http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/156-how-does-route-selection-works-in-cisco-routers

https://media.licdn.com/mpr/mpr/AAEAAQAAAAAAAAjxAAAAJGRiMjRlYjQzLTU2ZDctNDc5ZC1hMDczLTE4NmNiYzJmNmMwYg.jpg

In the intensely competitive environment, startups and agile firms are overturning incumbents with digital business models, products, and services. In the 'Digital Era', we are observing the exponential growth in the data over internet. Simultaneously, organizations are facing mounting challenges from cybercrime, cyber-espionage, insider threats, and advanced persistent threats(APT).

As per the Verizon 2015 Data Breach Investigation Report (DBIR), 60 percent of businesses being breached happened within minutes or less and half of these incidents took anywhere from months to even years before being uncovered. We safely can derive inference that breaches tend to happen very quickly and on average take a long time to be detected by the targeted organization. These organizations can be divide into two types: 1) those who have been hacked, and 2) those who don’t yet know that they have been hacked.

Even after the tremendous efforts by the IT security vendors, the below questions still exist:

1. Aren’t governments and big businesses investing significant amounts of money already into developing countermeasures to cyberattacks?

2. Why are existing security products unable to stop these threats?

Attackers & Defenders have both become highly sophisticated.

Just like IT security solution providers, attackers also have labs for researching products. Hackers test various exploits against the new product until one succeeds, and then either sell the exploit on underground markets, weaponize it for less-skilled attackers, or use it for some other malicious purpose.

Anxiety Is Growing on Boards and in the C-Suite

Most C-suite leaders are still thinking about 'stopping threats' when they could be thinking about the tangible growth that 'cybersecurity excellence' makes possible. Cybersecurity weakness is a “silent disease” that impedes firms’ ability to innovate at precisely the time they can least afford it—when they are being drawn into the Digital Vortex, where digitization, disruption, and exponential changes are the “new normal.” Many companies suffer from this malady, but few are aware that they have it. Left unattended, cybersecurity weakness can be fatal in the Digital Vortex.

Below-par cybersecurity leaves companies in the worst possible competitive position: not innovating fast enough to compete, yet not safe enough from cyberattack despite delaying digital innovations.

In Search of Cybersecurity Excellence

Firms that turn cybersecurity excellence into true competitive advantage can innovate faster and more fully pursue the sort of digital transformation that allows them to respond nimbly to rapidly changing markets. This agility makes them more effective and drives enhanced financial performance.

Cybersecurity excellence also gives firms the opportunity to differentiate their brands by conveying a strong perception of customer trust and this is one of the many reasons organizations develop a Security Operation Center (SOC). They are establishing SOC teams of security professionals who can secure information systems through effective monitoring, detecting, investigating, analyzing, and responding to security events, thus protecting systems from cybersecurity risks, threats, and vulnerabilities.

Observing the demand for a newly-skilled cybersecurity professional, Cisco is introducing a new CCNA, i.e. CCNA Cyber Ops.

New CCNA Cyber Ops

The new CCNA Cyber Ops certification would prepare candidates to begin a career working with associate-level cybersecurity analysts within security operations centers offered by Cisco to its clients. They will learn how to detect and respond to security threats using the latest technology, as such jobs require the knowledge of basic cybersecurity and principles.

Exam 210-250 Understanding Cisco Cybersecurity Fundamentals - SECFND v1.0
Exam 210-255 Implementing Cisco Cybersecurity Operations - SECOPS v1.0

READ MORE: http://luminisindia.com/it-networking-blog/154-new-ccna-cyber-ops-are-you-ready-for-security-analysis

A Note to Viewers:
The below given piece of information has been published in supplementation of following Nairaland posts:
https://www.nairaland.com/2412076/holistic-understanding-lean-six-sigmaand
https://www.nairaland.com/2416313/what-six-sigma-30000-feet-perspective

This article is being published with the intention of endorsing the various vistas of Lean Six Sigma implementation, particularly when it is implemented in IT sector. We do believe that IT professionals of all ranks & files would acknowledge the great value Lean Six Sigma brings to their organisation, if it has been implemented with sincere undertaking. Thanks!

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Information technology (IT) organizations increasingly are under pressure to improve their service and process capability. In the quest for improvement methodologies, organizations often adopt a “pick one” strategy – with Six Sigma being the widely favored choice. However, it is possible to integrate Lean and Six Sigma and reap the full benefits that these methodologies can bring to the table.  

Defined as a measure of quality that strives for near perfection, six sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects (driving towards six standard deviations between the mean and the nearest specification limit) in any process -- from manufacturing to transactional and from product to service. To achieve six sigma, a process must not produce more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

Despite its origin in manufacturing, Six Sigma, when implemented in IT, isn’t about widgets; the focus is still on processes. When applied to IT operations, Six Sigma aims to measure and improve both internal processes, such as network speed and reliability, and line-of-business processes in which IT has a role, such as how well an online ordering system is working or how well your customer support system is performing actually.

Many big companies, including Honeywell and Textron, have their own internal 'brands' of Six Sigma that have been tailored to their line of business and oftentimes combined with Lean, another manufacturing technique designed to weed out non-value-adding sub-processes. Other organizations fine-tune the DMAIC model as needed. Chase Financial, for example, added a step called 'implement'.

Based in Bangalore, India, Wipro is one of the largest IT services and product engineering companies in the world. It has more than 100,000+ employees and 70+ delivery centers in 55+ countries. In fact, Wipro, an Indian IT giant, successfully decoded the Lean practices, implemented and then, perfected lean practices for their IT services.

Lean Six Sigma approach gets a thumbs-up by most CIOs. However, you need to know that --Six Sigma is a system of tools. There’s no prescribed set. You have to determine yourself-- what you want to bring to your workforce before you choose your tools.

The bottom-line here is that Lean & Six Sigma can successfully used in IT projects, Automated IT processes, ERP decisions/implementation, Data Warehousing, Software Designing, UI designing, customer support operations in all sort of IT companies, BPOs, KPOs, etc.

READ MORE: http://luminisindia.com/business-process-management/lean-six-sigma-in-it

You are welcome to leave us your contributions/comments about Lean Six Sigma, while we attempt to establish the correct view-point of Lean Six Sigma.

With thanks,

LUMINIS INDIA

A Note to Viewers:
The below given piece of information has been published in supplementation of another Nairaland post:
https://www.nairaland.com/2412076/holistic-understanding-lean-six-sigma. The intention has been to dispel many myths or wrong notions around Six Sigma among corporates/organisation. The idea is to attempt to re-establish the correct fundamental of Six Sigma & what actually it entails. Thanks!

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A common reaction to calls to raise productivity is "We just can’t afford the time and money". It may be better to view the short-term cost and time as a longer-term investment to reduce more significant costs to the organisation. Perhaps, the response should be "Can we afford not to improve productivity?". We can debunk these myths:

Myth #1 :
Only large companies will find it economically viable to implement productivity techniques
Productivity improvement techniques can be applied effectively in enterprises of any size. In fact, the flexibilities of small organisation make it easier to implement and reap greater benefits.

Myth #2 :
Productivity techniques are only suitable for manufacturing companies
Most of the productivity techniques originated from manufacturing, hence service companies shy away from it because they see them as manufacturing solutions. However, service companies are dependent on people processes as well and have many opportunities for improvements.

Myth #3 :
Productivity techniques cost too much to implement
Productivity techniques can be low cost and easy to apply. Some like 5S do not require major capital investment other than training.
A common reaction to calls to raise productivity is "We just can't afford the time and money". It may be better to view the short-term cost and time as a longer-term investment to reduce more significant costs to the organisation. Perhaps, the response should be "Can we afford not to improve productivity?"

It is not about cutting costs but "doing the things right" and "doing the right things" to achieve maximum efficiency and value.

Currently, there are a few productivity techniques to raise your productivity; Kaizen, Six Sigma, Lean, 5S may seem like names of secret societies or brands of diet products but they are some of the well known productivity techniques today.

Lean Manufacturing relies on the concept of waste removal. Most production operations have up to 60 percent of activities that do not add value to the end customer. Cutting these will greatly improve an organisation’s efficiency. Six Sigma is another popular technique where companies strive to harmonise its products and services so that delivery is consistently made on time at optimal cost.

Lean Six Sigma is a management approach to business performance improvement that has blended the two individual specialisms of Lean and Six Sigma. Both management strategies are among the most used worldwide and have experienced proven success in a wide variety of industries and services.

The application of Lean Six Sigma allows quality and efficiency improvements to be effectively realized. The focus of Lean is about speed, efficiency and taking waste out of a process. Six Sigma focuses on effectiveness and removal of errors. When combined and implemented properly it can be a powerful management tool that can greatly improve an organization’s performance, by providing a structured approach to resolving problems. Lean Six Sigma can help you to bring about rapid improvements, whether in a manufacturing or service-based context.

A huge plethora of mistakes arises because of lack of due appreciation of what six sigma actually stands for. You would also endorse that there is quite a misplaced connotation of six sigma among many organisations.

The Greatest Myth about Six Sigma is that: The Six Sigma is all about 'Statistics' etc.

But do you really know - What is Six Sigma?

We are privileged to bring the rightest perspective of: What is Six Sigma to the Black Belts & Green Belts. Beyond technical perspective of DMAIC, DMADV etc. You should appreciate - What 6 Sigma really is?

There is nothing which compares to the effectiveness of Six Sigma when it comes to improving a company or organization's operational efficiency, raising its productivity, and lowering its costs. Six Sigma improves design processes, gets products to market faster with fewer defects, and builds customer loyalty. But do you know really-- What is Six Sigma, beyond knowing its methodologies such as DMAIC or DMADV?

READ MORE: http://luminisindia.com/business-process-management/a-30000-feet-perspective-of-six-sigma

You are welcome to leave us your contributions/comments about Lean Six Sigma, while we attempt to establish the correct view-point of Lean Six Sigma.

With thanks,

LUMINIS INDIA

We are submitting the post with a request to Nairaland Forum Team (MODERATION) that if we have made a mistake of posting it here, the please help us posting at appropriate place or in appropriate manner. It is important for us, because we have intention of following it up with another top-quality link/write-up/article, which would challenge the notion that Six Sigma is all about Statistics etc. Thanks!

[center]A note to viewers:[/center]
It is an attempt to showcase the detailed explanation of Lean Six Sigma, so as to present you all the key information about what all entails about Lean Six Sigma and its relative importance to process excellence. Our intention is to facilitate the members of Nairaland.com for their genuine queries related with Lean Six Sigma. Hope that you would be able to derive the right understanding about the Lean Six Sigma and your queries would be settled down. Thanks.

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An Holistic Understanding of Lean Six Sigma

Six Sigma is a business management strategy, originally developed by Motorola in 1986. Six Sigma became well known after Jack Welch made it a central focus of his business strategy at General Electric in 1995, and today it is widely used in many sectors of industry.

Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. It uses a set of quality management methods, including statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization ("Black Belts", "Green Belts", etc.) who are experts in these methods. Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified financial targets (cost reduction and/or profit increase).

The term Six Sigma originated from terminology associated with manufacturing, specifically terms associated with statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield, or the percentage of defect-free products it creates. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of the products manufactured are statistically expected to be free of defects (3.4 defects per million). Motorola set a goal of "six sigma" for all of its manufacturing operations, and this goal became a byword for the management and engineering practices used to achieve it.

Lean Six Sigma is a synergized managerial concept of Lean and Six Sigma that results in the elimination of the seven kinds of wastes/muda (classified as Defects, Overproduction, Transportation, Waiting, Inventory, Motion and Over-Processing) and provision of goods and service at a rate of 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO) using Six Sigma.

The Lean Six Sigma concepts were first published in the book titled "Lean Six Sigma: Combining Six Sigma with Lean Speed" authored by Michael George in the year 2002. Lean Six Sigma utilises the DMAIC phases similar to that of Six Sigma. The Lean Six Sigma projects comprise the Lean's waste elimination projects and the Six Sigma projects based on the critical to quality (CTQ). The DMAIC toolkit of Lean Six Sigma comprises all the Lean and Six Sigma tools.

The training for Lean Six Sigma is provided through the belt based training system similar to that of Six Sigma. The belt personnel are designated as White Belts, Yellow Belts, Green Belts, Black Belts and Master Black Belts.

KNOW MORE: http://luminisindia.com/top-consultants-world-class-six-sigma-training-india-new-delhi-online

You are welcome to leave us your contributions/comments about Lean Six Sigma, while we attempt to establish the correct view-point of Lean Six Sigma.

With thanks,

LUMINIS INDIA