TRANSLATION IS THE RENDERING OR TRANSFERING OF AN INFORMATION FROM THE SOURCE LANGUAGE TEXT TO THE TARGET LANGUAGE TEXT.



WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY THE WORD TRANSLATION?

NWIKE CHRISTOPHER CHINEDU
nwikechristopher1@gmail.com

TOPIC
TRANSLATION STRATEGIES, PROCEDURES AND EQUIVALENCE

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIAN LANGUAGES,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA .















Abstract
Translation is a rendering from one language to another. The transferring language is the source language while the receiving language is the target language. In this paper, ideas are focussed on translation strategies, procedures and translation equivalence. But before, the purpose of the study and it's research questions were noted and after which the literature review, showing the theoretical background of the study and finally the conclusion.
KEY WORDS
Translation Strategies
Translation Procedures
Translation Equivalence
1.0 Introduction
Translation is defined to be the rendering or transfer of information from a source language text (SLT) to the target language text (TLT). Surely the translated information into the target language text must be equivalent to the information in the source language text. Language is not classification of a universal concepts. If so, it would be easy to translate from a source language text into the target language text. Culler (1976) believes that language may differ entirly from another. Each articulate it's word and simply name categories differently.

1.1 Purpose of the study
To know translation strategies, procedures and it's equivalence in culture specific concept in general and allusions

1.2 Research questions
What is translation strategy?
What are translation procedures?
What is translation equivalence?
What are the best ways of making proper rendering into TLT

Literature review
2.1 Translation
It is of high importance to understand the meaning of translation as mentioned by many translation theorists to obtain an overall capture of the translation process.
Bensoussan (1990) as quoted by Jiraphatralikhit et al (2005:7) states that translation is closely related to the reading process. Hatim and Mason (1990) suggests that translation is a process involving the negotiation of meaning between producers and receivers of the text. Nida (1974), as cited by Jiraphatralikhit et al.(2005), believes that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style. Catford (1965), as cited in Jiraphatralikhit et al. (2005) views translation as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by the equivalence text material in another language (TL) . Bell (1991) views translation as the replacement of a text in one language by an equivalent text in another language. Newmark (1981:7) indicates that translation is a craft that attempts to replace a written message or statement in one language by the same message in another language. He also view translation as a science, a skill, an art, and a matter of taste. As a science, translation includes the knowledge and assessment of the facts and the language that describes them ; as a skill, translation contains the appropriate language and acceptable usage; as an art, translation differentiates good writing from bad and involves innovative, intuitive and inspired levels and lastly viewing translation as a matter of taste includes the fact that the translator resorts to his/her own preference; so, the translated text varies from one translator to another. Kelly (2005:26-27) defines translation as the skill of understanding the source text and rendering it in the target language by using the register, the background knowledge, and other language resources according to the intended purpose. A translator is a mediator of the two languages and cultures who can transfer the SL to the TL.

2.2. Translation strategies
A strategy is a systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve ones learning performance ( Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary, n. d.). Though this definition may be related to other field of study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies. A translator uses a strategy when s/he encounters problems while translating a text. This means when a translator translates a text literally, translation strategies may not be needed. When they translate word for word and use a dictionary, beginners in the area of translation thinks that they have made a good translation; they do not understand that a problem still exists and changes must be made at some levels of the translation. Therefore, problem solving is the most important function of the strategies.
Translation strategy typologies
Chesterman (1997), as Bergen (n. d) stated, believes that in translation strategies field, there is considerable terminological confusssion. He believes the general translation strategies are as follows:
Involves text manipulation
Must be applied to the process
Goal oriented
Problem centered
Must be applied consciously
They are inter-subjective (must be empirical and understandable for the readers not the person who used them)
Bergens (n.d) classification of the strategies includes three categorizations:
Comprehension strategies
Transfer strategies
Production strategies.
By this classification, he meant: first we read and comprehend a text. Second, we analyze the difference between the source text and the target one, and we must decide on the kinds of strategies which we are up to use them. Lastly we produce the equivalent text in the target language.
Bergen (n.d) mentioned according to Chesterman (1997), local translation strategies can be categorized into
Semantics
Syntactic
Pragmatic changes.
Each group has its own subcategories.
Strategies of translating allusions
Proper names which are defined by Richards (1985:68) as names of a particular person, place or thing and are spelled with a capital letter, play an essential role in a literary work. For instance let us consider personal names PNs. They may refer to the setting, social status and nationality of characters and really demand attention when rendered into a foreign language.
There are some models for rendering PNs in translations. One of this models is presented by Harvey and Higgins (1986) who believes that there exists two strategies for translating PNs. They pointed out either the name can be taken over unchanged from the ST to the TT, or it can be adopted to conform to the phonic /graphic conventions of the TL.
Harvey and Higgins (1986) refer to the former as exotism which is tantamount to literal translation and involves no cultural transposition and the latter as transliteration. However, they propose another procedure or alternative as they put it, namely cultural transplantation. Regarding the translation of PNs, Newmark (1988a:214) asserts to be effective where connotations and implied meanings are significant. Indeed, there are some names in the Achebe's Chike and the River translated by Nwike Chinedu (2015) (local text) and Charles Dickens Oliver Twist translated by Ezika Chido (2012) (Foreign text) which bears connotations and require a specific strategy for beign translated. Newmark's (1988a:215) solution of the mentioned problem is as follows:
Translate the word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL
Then naturalize the translated word back into a new SL proper name.
Leppihalme (1997:79) proposes another set of strategies for translating the proper name allusions:
Retention of the names
Using the name as such
Using the name, adding some guidance.
Using the name, adding a detailed explanation for instance, a footnote.
2. Replacement of the name by another
Replacing the name by another SL name
Replacing the name by a TL name
3. Omission of the name.
Omitting the name, but transferring the sense by other. means,for instance by a common noun.
Ommiting the name and allusion together
Loescher (1991: defines translation strategy as a potential conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it. As stated in this definition, the notion of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the learners or translaators. Cohen (1998:4) asserts that the element of consciousness is what distinguishes strategies from these process that are not strategic.
Krings (1986:18) defines translation strategy as translators potentiality conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the frame work of a concrete translation task., and Segnuinot (1988) believes that there are at least three global strategies employed by the translators:
Translating without interruption for as long as possible.
Correcting surface errors immediately
Leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision stage.
Bell (1998:188) differentiate between global (those dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments) strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of translation problems.

2.3 Translation procedures
This is a particular method of performing a translation task. It is the series of small tasks or steps taken to accomplish the translation of a written text. The set of established forms or methods of an organized body for accomplishing a certain task or tasks. The translating procedures as depicted by Nida (1964) are as follows
Technical procedures
Analysis of the source and target languages
A thorough study of the source language text before making attempts to translate it
Making judgement of the semantic and syntactic approximations. (pp. 241-45)
2. Organizational procedures
Constant revaluation of the attempt made, contrasting it with the existing available translation of the same text one by other translators , and checking the texts communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate it's accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reactions (pp. 246-47)


Procedures of translating culture-specific concepts (CSCs)
Graedler (2000:3) puts forth some procedures of translating CSCs.
Making up a new word
Explaining the meaning of the SL expression in lieu of translating it.
Preserving the sl terms intact.
Opting for a word in the TL which seems similar to or has the same " relevance " as the SL term.
Defining culture-bound terms (CBTs) as the terms which refer to concepts, institutions and personnel which are specific to the SL culture. Harvey (2000) puts forward the following four major techniques for translating CBTs.
Functional Equivalence: It means using a referent in the TL culture whose function is similar to that of the source language (SL) referent. As Harvey (2000) writes, authors are divided over the merits of theis technique. Weston (1991:23) describes it as the ideal method of translation while Sarcevic (1985:131) asserts that it is misleading and should be avoided.
Formal Equivalence or linguistic equivalence: It means a word for word translation.
Transcription or borrowing (ie. Reproducing or where necessary, transliterating the original text) : It stands at the far end of SL oriented strategies. If the term is formally transparent or is explained in the the context, it may be used alone. In other cases, particularly where no knowledge of SL by the reader is presumed, transcription is accompanied by an explanation or a translators note
Descriptive or self explanatory translation. It uses generic term (not CBT) to convey the meaning. It is appropriate in a wide variety of contexts where formal equivalence is considered insufficiently clear. In a text aimed at a specialized reader, it can be helpful to add the original SL terms to avoid ambiguity.
Newmark (1988) posited a different translation procedures. They are
Transference : It is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000) named transcription.
Naturalization: It adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. Newmark (1988b:82)
Culture equivalent: It means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one, however they are not accurate.
Functional equipment: It requires the use of a culture-neutral word (Newark, 1988b:83)
Descriptive equivalent: In this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words. (Newmark 1989b:83)
Componential analysis: It means comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one to one equivalent by demonstrating first their common and their differing sense components (Newmark 1988b:114)
Synonymy: It is near TL equivalent. Here economy trumps accuracy.
Through translation: It is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organization and components of compounds. It can also be called calque or loan translation
Translation equivalence
If a particular linguistic unit in one language has the same message in another language, then these two units are considered equivalent. The area of equivalent covers different linguistics unit. Finding a suitable equivalent of linguistic unit of one language in another language is the problematic stage in translation. When the translator found out the meaning of the SL linguistic form, s/he will ask him/herself what the linguistic form is in another language TL so that the same meaning or it's equivalence will be encoded by.

Example of Equivalents in English, Igbo and Persian language.
Coal in English may equal ziera (raisins) in Persian, UNYI in Igbo language and Newcastle in English may equal Kerman (a city in Iran) and the same Newcastle in Igbo language due to insufficient words in Igbo language.
English Igbo Persian
Taking coal to Newcastle - Iwega unyi na Newcastle -ziera ba Kerman bordan

Shoulder may equal Okuubu in Igbo language and graden (neck) in Persian.
English - The blame rests on my shoulder
Igbo - Uta bu m ka odiziiru
Persian - Masuliat bar garden man ast

Bedsheet in English may equal barf (snow) in Persian.
Akwa akwa :
(Cloth bed) : In Igbo language.
English - As white as Bedsheet
Igbo - O na-enwu ka aku mmiri igwe
Persian - Ba sefidie barf

Gold in English may equal Olaedo in Igbo language and aieneh (mirror) in Persian.
English - Heart of gold
Igbo - Obi oma
Persian - aieneh delan

Thread in English may equal Owu in Igbo language and moo (hair) in Persian.
His life hangs by a thread - English language
Ndu ya peziri nnukwu mpe - Igbo language
Zendagie u ba mooie band ast - Persian Language

The number 9(nine) in English may equal ugboro ugboro in Igbo language and 7 (seven) in Persian language.
She has dressed up to nines - English
O kwadogo ugboro ugboro - Igbo
Haft ghalam araiesh kardah ast. - Persian
Sometimes, due to religious, cultural and literary factors, it is difficult to find a suitable/standard equivalent in one language for another. In Igbo language, some cultural words which are seen as taboo words may be hard to translate (as in Igbo language). It is either impossible or quite difficult to be translated into standard equivalent in its cosmology. What should the translator do when s/he encounters thorny areas like those mentioned above? Since language is used as a means of communication, except for the untranslatable cases such as figures of sound - pun, alliteration, assonance, consonance, metrical patterns etc, the translator may appeal to interpretation.

Conclusion
It seems necessary for an acceptable translation to produce the same or similar effects in the target language text. Translation opted in various strategies for rendering allusions. It helps for recognition and perception of connotations. It was shown that different theorists suggested various definitions and definition of strategy in translation base on their different perspective. Finally, to render a satisfactory translation, the translator needs to be acquainted with the language of the target text and source text to either find standard equivalents or convey the authors intending meanings to the target language audience.


Reference
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