This was my Class Assignment sometimes ago, I thought of sharing it with you, never can tell who this may help.

Assignment Topics:

1. DESIGN A MODEL ON CLASSICAL THEORIES, BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE AND MODERN THEORIES
2. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CENTRAL CONCEPTS CLASSICAL ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH AND BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
3. EXPLAIN THE DOMAIN OF MODEL THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION

Course Title: Organizational Models
Course Code: (BUS 826)


Department of Business Administration
Faculty of Business Administration
University of Lagos

INTRODUCTION:
This assignment is meant to broaden an individual student on the subject matter. Thus, this assignment will be more academic oriented if we could start by knowing the meaning of model being a key concept in this assignment. A model could be seen as pictorial, graphical, diagrammatic or mathematical simplified representation of real situation for easy understanding and interpretation.
QUESTION 1: DESIGN A MODEL ON CLASSICAL THEORIES, BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE AND MODERN THEORIES

What is Classical Management Theory?
Classical management theory involves creating multiple levels of workers to improve productivity. Employees at the lowest levels find their tasks overseen by supervisors who, in turn, are overseen by managers. At every level, employees are expected to perform tasks according to specific procedures designed to maximize productivity. In addition, this theory focuses on an impersonal side of business. Employees and managers should not allow friendliness and personal interactions to become involved with the organization. Rules must be followed exactly, and the hiring and firing of employees must relate only to the skills they possess.
The classical approaches of management, which emerged from the Industrial Revolution, focus on improving the efficiency, productivity, and output of employees, as well as the business as a whole. However, it generally does not focus on human or behavioral attributes or variances among employees, such as how job satisfaction improves employee efficiency.
The Behavioral Perspective of Management
The behavioral perspective of management (sometimes called the “human relations perspective”) takes a much different approach from the classical perspective. It began in the 1920s with theorists such as Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow, and Mary Parker Follett.
Model Theory

According to Business Jargons website, the Modern Theory is the integration of valuable concepts of the classical models with the social and behavioral sciences. This theory posits that an organization is a system that changes with the change in its environment, both internal and external.
In-line with the given assignment below is a model representing the three major models and their sub-classifications.


QUESTION 2: COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CENTRAL CONCEPTS CLASSICAL ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACHES AND BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE.

Classical organizational theories and behavioral theory represent two views of management on the opposite ends of the spectrum. One view focuses on looking at workers solely as a means to get work done, while the other focuses on developing an organization and the behaviors and motivations of employees. Most managers said that a combination of the two theories serves them best in their businesses management.
"Scientific management," an approach pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor (in fact, the approach is sometimes called "Taylorism". Taylor's focus was on industrial management. He was obsessed with fostering efficiency, and he suggested that managers do this in a number of different ways. First, he advocated specialization to the extreme. Workers should focus not just on a single job, but on a single task that was part of a rigid division of labor.
Management theory, acknowledging that in today's mostly post-industrial world, our expectations of employees are not to produce x number of widgets per hour, but to be creative, think critically, take the initiative, and solve problems. Behaviorism is not all that effective at motivating employees to succeed in this milieu.
To compare and contrast the classical theories and behavioral perspective which is also refers as human relations theories of management, we have:
• Classical management or organizational theories consist of three major schools of thoughts (Scientific Approach, Bureaucratic Approach and Administrative school of thought) in contrast to Behavioral perspective.

• Classical management theory includes the scientific management theory of Frederick W. Taylor, who pioneered the idea that each job should be studied carefully to ascertain its requisite components, as well as the skills and training necessary to complete each task, and that the gathering of this information should be used to create a quota, a minimum that each employee should be expected to produce. Otherwise, he thought, people would drag out tasks as much as possible, since their only motivation was a paycheck.

• Weber is also considered as part of the classical management school of thought. He theorized that a hierarchy in a business, with a stable cadre of administrators who ran the company, would provide a more stable and productive business environment. This was the origin of the bureaucracy, a term we use with derision today, but a concept that still has great utility. In government, the civil service employees comprise this cadre.

• Behaviorism, to be sure, concerns itself with the behavior of individuals, but it posits that behavior can be controlled through reward and punishment, reward being called positive reinforcement and punishment being called negative reinforcement. Management theory has gone beyond this for the most part in contemporary practices, focusing rather on what some call humanistic management theory, acknowledging that in today's mostly post-industrial world, our expectations of employees are not to produce x number of widgets per hour, but to be creative, think critically, take the initiative, and solve problems. Behaviorism is not all that effective at motivating employees to succeed in this milieu.

• The classical approaches of management emerged from the Industrial Revolution and focus on the efficiency, productivity, and output of employees as well as of the organization as a whole. It generally does not focus on human or behavioral attributes or variation among employees.

• Behavioral perspective focuses more on the individuals in a workplace than the rules, procedures and processes. Instead of directives coming directly from management, a human relations theory provides communication between employees and managers, allowing them to interact with one another to help make decisions. Instead of giving workers quotas and requiring certain procedures, workers are exposed to motivational and emotional tactics to get them to increase productivity. The focus of this style is creating fulfilled, productive workers and helping workers invest in a company.

• The classical perspective of management is often criticized for ignoring human desires and needs in the workplace and does not take into consideration human error in work performance. The classical perspective has strong influences on modern operations and process improvement.
• The behavioral perspective of management (sometimes called the “human relations perspective”) takes a much different approach from the classical perspective: it is generally more concerned with employee well-being and encourages management approaches that consider the employee as a motivated worker who genuinely wants to work.

• Classical management theory is not used in many organizations because of its shortcomings. While some components of the theory, such as designing procedures for completing a task and keeping personal issues out of business, help an organization focus on the job at hand, the theory fails to recognize the differences among employees. When employee feelings and opinions are not taken into account, the business may not grow or may experience high levels of employee turnover as employees fail to develop a relationship with the business and leave in search of a more satisfying job.
• While many companies operate based on the human relations theory, this type of management has dangers. Companies risk workers becoming too social or easily swayed by personal emotions and opinions when making decisions, rather than relying on hard data. It may be more difficult to reprimand employees for poor performance or dismiss them once they have become invested in the company. Despite these risks, human relations theory has the potential to increase employee retention rates and productivity. As employees feel more valued by a company, they invest in that company and its greater good
In conclusion:
While other management theories have evolved since then, classical management approaches are still used today by many small-business owners to build their companies and to succeed. One of the advantages of the classical management structure is a clear organizational hierarchy with three distinct management levels. Each management group has its own objectives and responsibilities. The top management is usually the board of directors or the chief executives who are responsible for the long-term goals of the organization. Middle management oversees the supervisors, setting department goals according to the approved budget. At the lowest level are the supervisors who oversee day-to-day activities, address employee issues and provide employee training. The levels of leadership and responsibilities are clear and well defined. While the three-level structure may not be suitable for all small businesses, it can benefit those that are expanding.
One of the advantages of classical management approach is the division of labor. Projects are broken down into smaller tasks that are easy to complete. Employees' responsibilities and expectations are clearly defined. This approach allows workers to narrow their field of expertise and to specialize in one area. The division of labor approach leads to increased productivity and higher efficiency, as workers are not expected to multitask. Small-businesses owners can benefit from taking this approach if they are looking to increase production with minimal expense.
According to classical management theory, employees should be motivated by monetary rewards. In other words, they will work harder and become more productive if they have an incentive to look forward to. This gives management easier control over the workforce. Employees feel appreciated when being rewarded for hard work. A small-business owner can take this approach to motivate the employees to achieve production goals.
The autocratic leadership approach is the central part of classical management theory. It states that an organization should have a single leader to make decisions, to organize and direct the employees. All decisions are made at the top level and communicated down. The autocratic leadership approach is beneficial in instance s when small-business decisions need to be made quickly by a leader, without having to consult with a large group of people, such a board of directors. Small businesses, especially sole proprietorships, can have an advantage in taking this approach, as they need a strong leader to grow.
The classical perspective of management theory pulls largely from these three theorists (Taylor, Weber, and Fayol) and focuses on the efficiency of employees and on improving an organization’s productivity through quantitative (i.e., measurable, data-driven) methods. The classical perspective is often criticized for ignoring human desires and needs in the workplace and typically does not take into consideration human error in work performance. The classical perspective has strong influences on modern operations and process improvement, which uses quantitative metrics to determine how effectively a process is running.



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QUESTION 3: EXPLAIN THE DOMAIN OF MODEL THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION
Modern Theory
Definition: The Modern Theory is the integration of valuable concepts of the classical models with the social and behavioral sciences. This theory posits that an organization is a system that changes with the change in its environment, both internal and external. -Business Jargons
Modern organizational behavior has become complex. It synthesizes the classical and neoclassical theories of organization, while incorporating technological development. Modern theories of organization are classified into quantitative theory, system theory and contingency theory.
The Quantitative Theory includes operation research and quantification of the problem. It analyses the problems from quantifiable angles and provides solutions to complex problems only with the help of statistical and mathematical models such as linear and non-linear programming, game theory, decision tree, simulation and probability. Computers are used to solve management problems whereas mathematical models were previously used for the purpose. A large number of problems are solved with the use of simulation equations and computers. The development of equations requires specialized skills and advance knowledge of mathematics, statistics, economics and behavioral sciences. Models are tested while the context of the real world and use of operation research. Operation research is conducted by diverse specialists and management experts. It is useful from the levels of planning for organizing, actuating and control. It is known that mathematical models do not provide the ultimate solutions. If they are used in a given environment with real assumptions, they can suggest appropriate measures which can be used for solving problems. The quantitative approach is merely a tool for finding a suitable solution, but is not a solution in itself. It has become a valuable supplement rather than a substitute for management and organization. The role of human skills and behavior cannot be ignored for the purpose of management. Even in highly computerized systems, the human element cannot be ignored. The use of computers has economized and facilitated many problems. The management does not need to resort to monotonous cumbersome processes but can easily and swiftly find the real problem or can diagnose the problem with real solutions. Computers have helped managements and people arrive at correct decisions which would not be possible without the use of quantitative techniques. This precise and prompt approach has also prevented other problems. The cost of communication and maintenance of huge files has been considerably reduced by the computerized management technique.

The System Approach: A system is a set of interconnected and inter-related elements of management activity. It is an arrangement of components of activities performed for achieving certain objectives. Thus, a system has three components: arrangement, objectives and a plan. The arrangement is designed and planned in an effective manner to achieve the objective. Men, materials and money are planned to achieve the objectives of the organization. Recently, it has been agreed that the organization is a system wherein operation, marketing, finance, etc. are subsystems. The modern organization theory believes in the General Systems Theory (GST) which is applicable to all scientific phenomena. Kenneth and Boulding have contributed a systems theory to establish to single, self-contained and generalized theory for particular disciplines. The system approach believes in a static structure and a dynamic and cybernetic system. It has increased mobility, technological behavior, self-awareness and the goal-directed approach. The system is an organization wherein the various components are subsystems which are managed and mobilized for attaining the organizational goals. It is an interconnected, interdependent and interacting arrangement of men and materials. For example, business is a social technical system, a plant is a botanical system, and a car is a mechanical system and so on.

Characteristics of the System Theory – A business or industrial organization has a system approach towards individuals, formal and informal organization’s status and role, process, resources and goals which are interlinked to attain objectives through a synergistic effect. The system approach is divided into closed and open systems. The open system consists of the input transformation process, output, feedback and environment. An organization is considered an open system because it continuously interacts with the external environment for survival. The closed system believes in internal management. It is like a closed loop which is autonomous and independent. It believes that the environment will not pose problems. Management of internal factors is basically useful for an organization. However, the closed system is not perpetual. It breaks down when the environment influences the working conditions. Modern Open Theory (MOT) discounts the environment effect. The open system is ready to be exposed to a spectrum of complex changes and challenges of the environment. It is well known as the modern open theory which is dynamic, adaptive, multilevel, multidimensional and multidisciplinary. It incorporates the elements of motivation which are important moving forces in an organization. The open system is multidisciplinary because it incorporates different disciplines in the organization. It depends on sociology, psychology, engineering, anthropology and son for managing different activities of corporate units. It is the base of formulating organizational structure, and has the capacity for adaptation to change. The informal organization and environmental conditions are giving due weight age under the open system. The modern open theory is empirical, analytical and systematic. It is an integrating theory having the characteristics of a subsystem, dynamism, multivariate, adaptive probabilistic multi-motivation and multidisciplinary and process setting. The theory has gained prominence because it has given due importance to interdependence, has synergism, wholesome boundaries, feedback and cybernetics. The open theory commonly used as a system approach believes in analytical detection of deviation from normal behavior and taking necessary and corrective action to eliminate the error. It is management by objectives. The system is self-regulatory and self-corrective through reception, controlling and affecting the process.
Use of System Theory in an Organization – An organization is considered a dynamic system which evaluates acts and interacts with the environment. It is open and incorporates all the changes and challenges of the social set up. The organization consists of interacting and interdependent subsystems. Each subsystem is defined with its objectives, structure, processes and promises. The interdependence of subsystems is so great that the success or failure of a subsystem will certainly influence other systems. The success of an organization depends on the process of each subsystem and proper evaluation of the elements of the environment, namely men, materials, money and other factors. A technical subsystem, social subsystem, psychological subsystem and structural subsystem are considered in the organization.

Technical subsystem: A technical subsystem is related to production functions. Job design, job description and job classification are involved in the technical subsystem. Technological development, mechanization, scientific management and rationalization are considered for the effective management of the organization. A technical subsystem is highly related to the social and social and psychological subsystem. If the employees’ behavior is satisfactory, the technical subsystem will work satisfactorily. The communication, decision-making process and other factors are important considerations under the technical subsystem.
The technical subsystem includes all functional areas, viz. marketing, production, finance and personnel, which are properly structured, and employees are assigned jobs in any of these areas, social and psychological subsystem. The employee’s behavior is influenced by their social backgrounds, education and work environment. Human relations and group dynamics are developed in the organization. The informal organization plays a significant role in the development of the organization. Satisfaction of human needs and motivation are essentially decided under the social and psychological subsystems. The sentiments, interests and attitudes of employees are the important factors to influence the productivity and efficiency of the organization. While performing their jobs, the employees try to get satisfaction. The informal and formal organization work together with great success; Men carry out functions according to sentiments, beliefs and interests. They are social creatures and expect social recognition; structural subsystem. The structural set up of an organization is the backbone of management. The structure provides power which may be formal and informal. The authority hierarchy is decided based on the structural system. Authority gives power which is used for transforming a decision into action. The structural subsystem is very important for the development and proper functioning of an organization.

In conclusion, there are several features of the modern theory that make it distinct from other sets of organizational theories, these are:
1. The modern theory considers the organization as an open system. This means an organization consistently interacts with its environment, so as to sustain and grow in the market. Since, the organization adopts the open system several elements such as input, transformation, process, output, feedback and environment exists. Thus, this theory differs from the classical theory where the organization is considered as a closed system.
2. Since the organization is treated as an open system, whose survival and growth is determined by the changes in the environment, the organization is said to be adaptive in nature, which adjusts itself to the changing environment.
3. The modern theory considers the organization as a system which is dynamic.
4. The modern theory is probabilistic and not deterministic in nature. A deterministic model is one whose results are predetermined and whereas the results of the probabilistic models are uncertain and depends on the chance of occurrence.
5. This theory encompasses multilevel and multidimensional aspects of the organization. This means it covers both the micro and macro environment of the organization. The macro environment is external to the organization, while the micro environment is internal to the organization.
6. The modern theory is multi-variable, which means it considers multiple variables simultaneously. This shows that cause and effect are not simple phenomena. Instead, the event can be caused as a result of several variables which could either be interrelated or interdependent.

Very nice