This test is for

Male

Test Preparation

Avoid putting anything in your mouth for at least an hour before the collection of cheek-cell samples. Foreign particles from food, liquids, toothpaste and tobacco byproducts do not alter the DNA however, they can mask it. The outcome is that the sample turns into damaged and therefore unusable for paternity testing.

OVERVIEW
What is a paternity test?

Paternity Testing ascertains whether or not a man is the biological father of the child or children under investigation. The test compares the DNA of a mother, a child (or children) and a likely father and mother (if a sample is available). Children inherit half of their DNA from their mother and half from their father. If a man shares certain DNA progression with a child then there is a 99.99% possibility the man is the biological father of that child. If a man does not share those DNA progressions with a child then he is not the biological father.

Which of the parents should take the Paternity Test?

For a Paternity Test to be done DNA samples from the mother, baby (or children) and the likely father will be taken. For paternity test mother’s consent will be required.

What Paternity Test results indicate

The Paternity Test result will indicate either:
• The man is 99.99% possibly to be the biological father of a child or
• The man is certainly not the biological father.

How common is a false paternity?

If you ask around, even amongst scientists, you'll regularly hear estimates of false paternity of around 10% and in some occasions as high as 30%. Researchers who specialize in the field, however, advocate that the number is more like 1-5%, with some studies placing the top boundary as low as 3.7%.

How much time does it take to ascertain paternity?

For a standard paternity test (testing one likely father with one child) in an accredited lab has test results or outcomes in two (2) to three (3) working days once all samples are received.

What is Tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious illness that normally affects the lungs, though it can affect any organ in the body. It may develop when bacteria spread through droplets in the air. TB can be fatal, but in most cases, it is preventable and treatable.
In the past, TB, also called “consumption,” was a major cause of death globally. With improvements in living conditions and the development of antibiotics, the prevalence of TB reduced dramatically in industrialized countries.
However, in the 1980s, numbers started to increase again. The World Health Organization (WHO) termed it an “epidemic.” They report that it is among the top ten causes of death globally and “the principal cause of death from a single infectious agent.”
As per WHO estimates in 2018, about 10 million people developed TB around the world and 1.5 million people died from the infection including 251,000 individuals who also had HIV.
The largest number of the people affected were in Asia. However, TB remains an issue of concern in many other areas, including Nigeria.
Presently, antibiotic resistance is causing renewed worries about TB among experts. Some strains of the disease are not responding to the most effective treatment available. In this case, TB is hard to treat.
· An individual with TB may experience swollen lymph nodes.
· An individual may develop TB after inhaling Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) bacteria.
· When TB affects the lungs, the infection is the most contagious, but a person will usually only become sick after close contact with somebody who has this type of TB.

TB infection (latent TB)
An individual may have TB bacteria in their body and never develop symptoms. In most persons, the immune system can contain the bacteria so that they do not multiply and cause disease. In this case, a person will have a TB infection but no active disease.
Doctors describe this as latent TB. A person may not experience symptoms and be unaware that they have the infection. There is also no risk of spreading a latent infection to another person. However, a person with latent TB still needs treatment.

TB disease (active TB)
The body may not be able to contain TB bacteria. This is mainly common when the immune system is weakened as a result of illness or the use of certain medications.
When this occurs, the bacteria can replicate and cause symptoms, leading to active TB. People with active TB can pass on the infection.
With no medical intervention, TB becomes very active in 5–10% of people with the infection. In about 50% of these people, the progression happens within 2–5 years of getting the infection, according to the CDC.
The possibility of developing active TB is greater in:
• Someone with a weakened immune system
• Someone who first developed the infection in the past 2–5 years
• Older adults and younger children
• People who use injected recreational drugs
• People who have not received proper treatment for TB in the past

Early warning signs of Tuberculosis
A person should visit a doctor if they notice:
• A persistent cough, lasting for about 3 weeks
• Phlegm, which may contain blood in it, when they cough
• A loss of weight and appetite
• A general feeling of tiredness and being sick
• Swelling around the neck
• A fever
• Night sweats
• Chest pain

Symptoms of Tuberculosis
Latent TB: A person with latent TB will not have symptoms, and no damage will appear on a chest X-ray. However, a blood test or skin prick test will show that they have a TB infection.

Active TB: People with TB disease might notice a cough that produces phlegm, fatigue, a fever, chills, and a loss of appetite and weight. Symptoms typically worsen with time, but they can also spontaneously go away and come back.

Beyond the lungs
TB typically affects the lungs, though symptoms can arise in other parts of the body. This is mainly common in people with weakened immune systems.
TB can cause:
• Consistently swollen lymph nodes, or “swollen glands”
• Abdominal pain
• Joint or bone pain
• Confusion
• A persistent headache
• Seizures

Diagnosis for Tuberculosis
People with latent TB will have no symptoms, but the infection can be detected on tests. People should request for a TB test if they:
• have spent time with anyone who has or is at risk of TB
• have spent time in places with high rates of TB
• Work in an environment where TB is present

You will ask about any symptoms and the person’s medical history. Physical screening will also be carried out which involves listening to the lungs and checking for swelling in the lymph nodes.

Two tests can detect whether TB bacteria are present:
• The TB skin test
• The TB blood test
However, these will not indicate if TB is active or latent. To test for active TB disease, the doctor will suggest a sputum test and a chest X-ray.
Everybody with TB needs treatment, regardless of whether the infection is active or latent.

Treatment for Tuberculosis
With early detection and correct antibiotics, TB is treatable.
The right type of antibiotic and duration of treatment will depend on:
• Age along with the general health of the person
• If they have latent or active TB
• The location of the disease
• If the TB is drug-resistant

Treatment for latent TB can differ. It may involve taking an antibiotic once a week for 12 weeks or daily for 9 months.
Treatment for active TB may require taking several drugs for 6–9 months. When an individual has a drug-resistant strain of TB, the treatment will be very complex.
It is important to complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms disappear. If a person stops taking their medication early enough, some bacteria can survive and turn resistant to antibiotics. In this case, the person can go on to develop drug-resistant TB.
Depending on the parts of the body that TB affects, a medical doctor may also prescribe corticosteroids.

Causes of Tuberculosis
M. tuberculosis bacteria cause TB. They can be transmitted through the air in droplets when an individual with pulmonary TB coughs, sneezes, spits, laughs, or talks.
Only persons with active TB can transmit the infection. However, many people with the disease can no longer transmit the bacteria after they have gotten appropriate treatment for at least 2 weeks.

Prevention of Tuberculosis
Measures for preventing TB from infecting others include:
• Getting a diagnosis and receiving treatment on time
• Staying clear from other people until there is no more risk of infection
• Using a mask, covering the mouth, and ventilating rooms
TB vaccination
In some countries including Nigeria, children receive an anti-TB vaccination — the bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine — as part of a normal immunization program.
However, experts from the Western world do not recommend BCG inoculation for most people unless they have a great risk of TB. Some of the reasons include a minimal risk of infection in the country and a high possibility that the vaccine will interfere with any future TB skin tests.

Risk factors of Tuberculosis
Persons with weakened immune systems are very likely to develop active TB. The following are some conditions that can weaken the immune system.
HIV
For people who have HIV, doctors consider TB to be an opportunistic infection. This means that a person with HIV has a greater risk of developing TB and experiencing very severe symptoms than a person with a healthy immune system.
Medication for TB can be complex in a person with HIV, but a doctor may develop a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses the two issues.
Smoking
Tobacco use and secondhand smoke raise the risk of developing TB. These factors also make the disease difficult to treat and more likely to return after treatment.
Quitting smoking and avoiding contact with smoke can lower the risk of getting TB.
Other conditions
Some other health conditions that weaken the immune system and can increase the risk of getting TB include:
• Low body weight
• Substance abuse disorders
• Diabetes
• Silicosis
• Serious kidney disease
• Head and neck cancer
Also, some clinical treatments, such as organ transplants, stop the functioning of the immune system.
Spending time in a country where TB is common can also increase the likelihood of developing it.
Complications of Tuberculosis
Without any treatment, TB can be fatal. If it spreads throughout the body, the infection can lead to problems with the cardiovascular system and metabolic function, among other issues.
TB can also cause sepsis, a potentially life-threatening type of infection.

Outlook
An active TB disease is contagious and potentially life-threatening if an individual does not receive appropriate treatment. However, most cases are treatable, especially if the doctors detect them early.
Anyone with a great risk of developing TB or any symptoms of the disease should see a doctor immediately.

You will provide

Blood Sample

This test is for both

Male, Female

Test Preparation

No extraordinary preparation is needed

What is HbA1c test for Diabetes?
The HbA1c test is a diagnostic test, also known as glycated haemoglobin test done to check your average level of blood sugar over 2 to 3 months. It’s an indicator that diabetes is controlled well.

For a diabetes patient, it’s a good test to check whether diabetes levels are within range. So, doctors suggest it to be done regularly.

HbA1c & Fasting plasma Glucose test or Fasting blood sugar (FBS) are done together for the diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes patients.

For Type 1 diabetes, HbA1c may not be a primary test, but it’s used with other tests for proper diagnosis.

Why do I need a HbA1c test for Diabetes?
People with diabetes who reduced their HbA1c by less than 1% can cut their risk of dying within 5 years by 50%, according to Swedish research presented at the annual meeting of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Sept. 2012 (EASD). *source WebMD

· HbA1c can help diagnose Prediabetes – there is a higher risk of cardiovascular problems and developing type 1 or 2 diabetes, if you have prediabetes

· HbA1c can help diagnose Type 1 & Type 2 diabetes – this along with other tests (like FBS) is required to confirm diagnosis of diabetes by doctors.

· HbA1c can help assess if the diabetes treatment plan for existing diabetes patients is going well. The test is done regularly to check the treatment plan

High levels of A1c show poor sugar control and a high risk of diabetes-related complications.

What is a Normal range in Hemoglobin A1c Test
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO)

HbA1c below 6.0%: Non-diabetic
HbA1c between 6.0–6.4%: Impaired glucose regulation (IGR) or Prediabetes, have a high chance of getting diabetes
HbA1c of 6.5% or over Type 2 diabetes
If you have prediabetes your doctor may suggest appropriate lifestyle changes that help to reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

If you have diabetes and your level is higher than the target, your doctor may change your treatment plan to get your level down.

How often should I do the HbA1c Test?
The frequency of the A1c test depends on a person’s medical conditions, type of diabetes and treatment plan.

Patients may require frequent HbA1c tests if there is a change in diabetes treatment or if any new medication is suggested by a doctor.

Usually, the test is recommended

· Prediabetes – once a year

· Diabetes patient whose blood sugar level is within target range but does not take insulin – twice a year

· Diabetes patients whose blood sugar level may sometimes become higher than the target range or are taking insulin – four times a year

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on HbA1c Test
What is a good HbA1c score?

HbA1c score below 6% indicate non-diabetic

What does the HbA1c test indicate?

Glycated Haemoglobin A1c occurs when blood cells that carry oxygen bond with glucose in the bloodstream resulting in glycation.

The higher the number of glycated blood cells, the higher the blood glucose level, which results in higher HbA1c levels.

The life of an average blood cell is 3 months, so HbA1c results reflect glucose levels of 2-3 months.

Is HbA1c a fasting test?

HbA1c is a simple diagnostic test that does not require fasting or any other special preparation and can be done at any time of the day.

What is Hernia?
A hernia happens when an internal organ or tissue in the body protrudes (bulges) through a soft or weak point that houses it. When left untreated a hernia may lead to a series of other complications. For instance, a hiatal hernia may result in other symptoms like severe acid reflux or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

It is important to note that Some forms of hernia may require surgical treatment while others may require medications and other non-invasive procedures but this only depends on the severity and should only be determined after proper examination at the hospital.

What are the types of Hernia?
Certain types of Hernia are gender-specific that is to say there are some that will only affect men whilst there are also some Hernias that will only affect women. Hernias may also be grouped as congenital (present from birth) or acquired over time due to various factors.

Inguinal Hernias: These often occur in the lower abdomen very close to the pubic area. They occur as a result of the weakening of the internal inguinal ring.

Femoral Hernias: They are also known as Groin hernias and are more likely to occur in women though a small percentage of men may also experience it. A weakness in the lower groin causes the intestinal sac to slip out of position. Once this is diagnosed, immediate repair surgery is highly recommended to prevent any further complications.

Hiatal Hernias: They are caused as a result of the weakness in the muscle which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. This form of hernia may lead to acid reflux into the oesophagus from the stomach.

Umbilical Hernias: They are caused when a section of the intestine passes through the abdominal wall near the navel. it mostly affects newborn children.

Hernia symptoms
Symptoms may vary with respect to the type and location of the hernia. For instance, in the case of a hernia occurring within the stomach cavity, you may experience symptoms like distension in the abdomen, tenderness, abdominal pains and discomfort in the abdomen, ulcers, bleeding, and narrowing of the oesophagus. while in the case of inguinal hernia, a person may experience pains and discomfort in the groin region.

However, the most general symptoms that may be a cause for concern are;

-An unsual distension (protusion)

-abnormal swelling

-tenderness in the area of concern

-unusual discomforts within the area

What causes Hernia?
Hernias are mainly caused by a loosening, weakening and in most cases opening of the muscle that houses a particular organ/tissue causing them to push through the weak spot. Some are usually congenital (present at birth) while others occur later in life.

Hernia treatment in Nigeria
Surgery can repair a hernia by taking the organ or tissue back into position. The surgical procedure may typically also involve surgically reconstructing or eliminating hernial sacs.

However, please note that not everyone who has a hernia requires surgery. However, this can only be determined after a proper check and advisory from the hospital.

The best treatment option would depend on the type of hernia, size and location. Similarly, the Patient may also be able to opt for any of the treatment options after all the necessary factors have been taken into consideration.

There are 3 main types of hernia treatment which includes;

open surgery repair

laparoscopic hernia repair

robotic repair

Please note that they are all done under general anesthesia so you have nothing to worry about. Upon consultation, you will be able to fully discuss and explore all available treatment options.

Open surgery for Hernia treatment
Open surgery repair typically involves a surgical procedure wherein an incision is made and the hernia sac which contains the bulging tissue or organ is identified and put back in place after the soft spots/ walls are carefully lined with artificial meshes that promote strengthening of the soft spots that induced the distension/ bulge and promotes healing in the area.

Hernia treatment without surgery (Laparoscopy)
Laparoscopic hernia surgery/ repair involves the use of laparoscopic or simply put very thin instruments through the umbilicus Guided by a laparoscope which transmits images of the internal organs to a monitor, to locate and repair the hernia. it is usually less invasive and painful. In a laparoscopic repair, recovery is faster.

Robotic repair for Hernia treatment
Robotic repair is a recently developed procedure for hernia repair and is the least invasive option. It is very similar to laparoscopic surgery and very tiny to no incisions will be made. But unlike the Laparoscopic repair that uses two-dimensional imaging (2D) imaging, it employs more advanced three-dimensional (3D) imaging.

How to prevent Hernia
Some hernias are congenital which means that they may have been present since the birth of the individual but generally, adopting healthy lifestyle modifications can help one to prevent the possible occurrence of a hernia. Some of the ways to prevent hernia include;

Balanced intake of fruits and vegetables

Avoiding exercises that can make one susceptible to heavy coughs e.g smoking

See a Doctor when you experience persistent coughs and sneezing

Avoid consuming excess whole-grain meals

Maintain an ideal body weight through exercising and diets

Avoid extremely strenuous activities and lifting very heavy weight materials beyond your body size and form.

How much is Hernia surgery cost in Nigeria?
Surgery costs would usually depend on a combination of factors which include;

1. Type of surgery required

2. Age and gender of patient

3. Location and size of the Hernia

4. Location of Patient/ Choice Hospital

5. Experience of Surgeon

6. Aftercare/ post-op packages

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. How much is hernia surgery in Nigeria?

This depends on the location for the surgery, the hospital, the type of hernia and other factors like duration of stay at the hospital.

2. Can hernia be cured permanently?

Surgery is the permanent cure for hernia

3. Can I repair my hernia without surgery?

Surgery is the only advisable way to cure a hernia permanently.

4. What is the best treatment for hernia?

Hernias typically do not go away on their own therefore, surgery is the best and permanent treatment for hernia.

What is a herpes (HSV) test?

Herpes is a skin disease brought about by the herpes simplex virus, referred to as HSV. HSV causes excruciating blisters or injuries in various parts of the body. There are two primary types of HSV:

HSV-1, which for the most part causes rankles or cold blisters around the mouth (oral herpes)

HSV-2, which normally causes rankles or bruises in the genital area (genital herpes)

Herpes is spread through direct contact with wounds. HSV-2 is typically spread through vaginal, oral, or anal sex. Also, herpes can be spread regardless of whether there is a visible wound.

Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 are repeating diseases. That implies after your first outbreak of bruises clears up, you may get another outbreak later on. In any case, the seriousness and number of outbreaks will generally diminish after some time. Even though oral and genital herpes can be awkward, the infections generally don't cause any severe health issues.

In uncommon cases, HSV can infect different parts of the body, including the brain and spinal cord. These infections can be intense. Herpes can likewise be dangerous to an infant. A mother with herpes can pass the disease to her child during birth. A herpes infection can be dangerous to an infant.

An HSV test searches for the presence of the virus in your body. While there is no remedy for herpes, there are medications that can help manage the condition.

Different names: herpes culture, herpes simplex viral culture, HSV-1 antibodies, HSV-2 antibodies, HSV DNA

What is it used for?

An HSV test might be used to:

See if wounds on the mouth or private parts are brought about by HSV

Analyze an HSV disease in a pregnant lady

See whether an infant is infected with HSV

For what reason do I need an HSV test?

You may require an HSV test if:

You have indications of herpes, for example, rankle or wounds on the private parts or other parts of the body

Your sex partner has herpes

You are pregnant and you or your partner has had a past herpes infection or side symptoms of genital herpes. On the off chance that you test positive for HSV, your child may require testing too.

HSV-2 may increase your danger of HIV and other sexually transmitted disease (STDs). You may require a test on the off chance that you have certain risk factors for STDs. You might be at higher risk in the event that you:

Have many sex partners

Are a man who engages in sexual relations with men

Have a partner suffering from HIV or another STD

In uncommon cases, HSV can cause encephalitis or meningitis, a severe infection of the brain and spinal cord. You may require a HSV test on the off chance that you have symptoms of a brain or spinal cord issue. These include:

Fever

Stiffness of the neck

Sensitivity to light

Confusion

Serious migraine or severe headache

What occurs during an HSV test?

HSV testing is typically done as a swab test, blood test, or lumbar picture. The kind of test you get will rely upon your manifestations or symptoms and health history.

For a swab test, a medical doctor or your healthcare provider will use a swab to gather fluid and cells from the herpes sore.

For a blood test, a medical doctor or your healthcare provider will take a blood test from a vein in your arm, using a little needle. After the needle is embedded, a small quantity of blood will be gathered into a test cylinder or vial. You may feel a touch of sting when the needle goes in or out. This typically takes under five minutes.

A lumbar picture, also referred to as a spinal tap, is possibly done if your medical doctor or your health care issuer figures you may have an infection of the brain or spinal cord. During a spinal tap:

You will lie on your side or sit on a test table.

A medical doctor or your health care provider will clean your back and inject anesthetics into your skin, so you won't feel pain during the procedure. Your medical doctor or your health care issuer may put a numbing cream on your back before this injection.

When the area on your back is numb, your medical doctor or your health care issuer will embed a slender, empty needle between two vertebrae in your lower spine. Vertebrae are the small backbones that make up your spine.

Your medical doctor or your health care provider will pull back a small quantity of cerebrospinal fluid for testing. This will take around five minutes.

Your medical doctor or your health care issuer may request that you lie on your back for an hour or two after the procedure. This may keep you from getting a headache subsequently.

Are there any dangers to the test?

There is no known danger to having a swab test.

There is next to no danger to having a blood test. You may have slight pain or wounding at the spot where the needle was placed, however, most indications leave rapidly.

In the event that you had a lumbar picture, you may have pain or softness in your back where the needle was embedded. You may likewise get a headache after the procedure.

What do the results (outcomes mean)?

Your HSV test results will be given as negative, likewise called normal, or positive, also called abnormal.

Negative/Normal. The herpes infection was not found. You may still at present have an HSV disease even if your outcomes were negative. It might mean the sample needed more of the infection to be identified. If you still have manifestations of herpes, you may need to get tried once more.

Positive/Abnormal. HSV was found in your sample. It might mean you have an active infection (you have bruises), or were infected before (you have no bruises).

In the event that you come out positive for HSV, converse with your medical doctor or your health care provider. While there is no remedy for herpes, it scarcely ever causes serious medical issues. A few people may just have one outbreak of injuries their entire lives, while others may have an outbreak regularly. In the event that you need to decrease the seriousness and number of your outbreaks, your medical doctor or your healthcare provider may recommend a prescription that can help.

Is there something else I have to be aware of about an HSV test?

The most ideal approach to prevent genital herpes or another STD is to not engage in sexual relations. On the off chance that you are sexually active, you can reduce your danger of disease by

Being in a relationship who has tested negative for STDs

Using condoms accurately every time you have intercourse

In the event that you've been diagnosed to have genital herpes, condom use can lessen your danger of spreading the infection to other people.

What are Tonsils?
The Tonsils are a pair of soft tissues located at the end of your throat that help to fight infections but the removal of the tonsils will not increase the chances of an infection. Tonsils differ in size from person to person and the sizes often change in response to infection. The problem is that sometimes germs like to hang in the tonsils where they cause infections. So instead of fighting infections, they get infected and this is referred to as "Tonsillitis" While this infection of the tonsils is far more common in children, it can turn into a problem for any age group.

What Causes Tonsillitis?
Tonsillitis is caused mainly by a host of bacteria and viruses. The major bacterium causing tonsillitis in the throat is known as Streptococcus pyogenes.

What are the Symptoms of Tonsillitis?

1. Yellow or white spottings on the tonsils
2. Red and swollen tonsils
3. Ulcers in your throat
4. Sore throat
5. Sharp pains when swallowing
6. Breathing problems and sleep apnea
7. Constant bad breath
8. Fever and chills
9. Appetite loss
10. Headache

What is Tonsillectomy?

A Tonsillectomy is the surgery done to remove the tonsils. A tonsillectomy is most often done in a hospital or health facility. You will be able to go home the same day or may be required to stay overnight at the facility for close monitoring.

The full recovery period is usually between 1 to 2 weeks and in this time, extra care and caution is to be taken as you are susceptible to infections within this period.

What are the types of Tonsil Surgery (Tonsillectomy)
The major types of tonsillectomy include;

1. Conventional dissection tonsillectomy

2. Ultrasonic scalpel tonsillectomy

3. Laser tonsillectomy


How to prevent Tonsillitis
Cultivating good hygiene practices can help reduce the likelihood of getting tonsils. Some of the habits which are advisable to adopt in this regard include;

1. Regularly washing your hands after contact with surfaces and after using restrooms

2. Avoid dipping dirty fingers into your mouth or nose

3. Avoid sharing eating utensils

4. Do not Kiss an affected individual or someone whose health status you are unsure of

5. Maintain a good oral hygiene and replace your toothbrushes frequently

6. Do not keep your hands or foreign objects in your throat: there is a likelihood of introducing or dislodging micro-organisms.

7. Avoid close contact and inhalation around someone who is sick

8. Use hand sanitisers as often as possible

9. Cover your toothbrushes neatly and carefully place them in clean containers after each use

What is the cost of Tonsil Surgery?
This is usually determined by the following factors;

1. Choice and location of the hospital

2. Choice of surgeon

3. Severity of tonsillitis

4. Method of removal

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. What surgery is best for tonsillitis?

Tonsillectomy is the best surgery to permanently cure recurrent tonsil infections.

2. Is tonsil surgery a major surgery?

Some Hospitals consider it a major surgery while others consider it a minor surgery and it is also largely determined by the type of surgery. But it is a minor surgery in children.

3. How many hours is tonsil surgery?

This varies according to the Surgeon but it is usually completed under an hour.

4. What are tonsil stones?

These are hardened whitish-yellowish calcified lumps or stone-like materials that can be found in the tonsils. They are usually formed by bacteria mixed with debris in the mouth. They vary in size and usually have a pungent smell.

5. What are tonsillitis?

These are another name for tonsil stones found at the back of your throat (tonsils)

6. Why do I have bad breath?

Medically referred to as halitosis, there are a host of reasons for bad breath which may include tonsilitis due to the infection of the mucus membranes of the tonsils of the mouth causing them to produce a foul stench.

HIV/AIDS
HIV is an acronym for the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS which is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, occurs in the later stage of HIV infection. People infected with HIV can take up to 10 years to develop AIDS.

What is HIV and How Does it Affect a Person’s Health?
The HIV disease weakens the body's immune defences by destroying CD4 (T-cell) lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that protect us from attacks by bacteria, viruses and various damaging pathogens. When these white blood cells are destroyed or weakened, they will no longer be effective in defending the body against infections.

Additionally, HIV infection increases the severity of some diseases and conditions. It also increases the possibility of getting some cancers.

What is AIDS?
An individual infected with HIV can take up to 10 years to advance to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is the end stage of HIV infection and is deadly. A man or woman with AIDS usually dies between one and a half to three years after getting AIDS, from a variety of infections and cancers.

How is HIV Transmitted?
more than 400 new cases of HIV are diagnosed every year in Nigeria. Sexual transmission remains the major mode of HIV transmission amongst Nigerians.

HIV is transmitted:
• Through unprotected sexual intercourse with an HIV-infected partner.

• From sharing of injection needles and different piercing instruments used for tattooing or acupuncture that are tainted with HIV.

• From an infected mom to her child during pregnancy, at birth, or via breastfeeding.

• Through receiving infected blood and blood products (e.g. organs, plasma).

Note: HIV is NOT contracted through social contact such as hugging and touching. Neither can it be spread through contact with objects such as food or toilet seats, or by biting bugs such as mosquitoes.

HIV Treatment
Currently, there is no treatment for HIV infection.

However, there are medications in the form of anti-retroviral therapy that can help enhance the patient's immune system to delay the onset of AIDS. These pills act by suppressing the replication of the HIV virus, therefore delaying the spread of HIV in the body and the onset of opportunistic infections. Persons with HIV who undergo anti-retroviral therapy are now likely to have a near-normal life expectancy.

How can I Protect Myself from getting infected by HIV?
You can shield yourself from HIV by:

• Staying away from casual sex.

• Remaining faithful to your partner and being sincere about your sexual history. If you are both not sure of your HIV status, consider going for HIV screening together.

• Imbibing to safe sex especially if you have multiple sex partners, for example by the use of condoms consistently and correctly. Although condoms do now not provide 100 percent safety from HIV, they provide at least 90 percent protection.

• Continually use a new latex condom during every sexual intercourse, and following the manufacturer's instructions.

• Watching the consumption of alcohol and tablets as these can affect your judgment, causing you to engage in risky sexual behaviours.

• Solely use clean, sterile needles and select a reliable service provider when getting a piercing, tattoo or injection.

• Accepting only HIV-screened blood during blood transfusions.

You can't tell if anyone has HIV based on appearances alone. People with HIV generally have no signs or symptoms.

How do I Know If I am infected by HIV?
Usually, an HIV-infected individual may not notice any symptoms. Some persons can also however experience the following common signs of HIV:

• Tiredness

• Weight loss

• Prolonged fever

• Night sweats

• Skin rash

• Chronic diarrhoea

• Decreased resistance to infections

HIV screening is the only way to identify whether one is infected with the virus. Most clinics offer routine HIV screening services, with some medical clinics providing speedy HIV testing as well. Rapid HIV tests produce very quick outcomes. In about 20 minutes, you may be able to know your HIV status.

The identities of persons who go for HIV screening and those found to be HIV-positive will be kept firmly confidential.

People engaging in high-risk sexual behaviour (e.g. having more than one sexual partner or engaging in casual sex) should often get tested so that any sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are detected and handled as early as possible. HIV treatments can substantially delay the onset of AIDS and decrease the risk of death.

You can also get yourself examined for STIs or HIV/AIDS at polyclinics, private clinics and hospitals.

What to Do If You Have HIV/AIDS
Under the Infectious Diseases Act, it is an offence for persons who know that they are infected with HIV or AIDS to not inform their sexual partners of their HIV condition before engaging in sexual intercourse.

If you think that you have HIV or AIDS or are at risk of contracting the virus, you must:

• Take sensible precautions to protect your sexual partner (e.g. by using condoms).

• Go for HIV testing to verify that you are HIV-negative.

• Inform your partner of the threat of contracting HIV.

Surjen Healthcare provides HIV screening.

Tendon repair is a surgical procedure done to treat a torn or damaged tendon. Tendons are soft, band-like tissues that connect muscles to bone. When the muscles contract, the tendons pull on certain bones and cause the joints to move.

When tendon damage occurs, movement may be very limited. The damaged area may feel weak or painful. Tendon repair surgery may be helpful for people who have tendon injuries that are making it hard for them to move a joint or are very painful.

Common reasons for tendon repair surgery
Tendon repair is done to bring back regular movement to a joint. Tendon injury may happen anywhere in the body where there are tendons. The joints that are usually affected by tendon injuries are the shoulders, elbows, ankles, knees and fingers.

A tendon injury may result from a cut that goes past the skin and through the tendon. A tendon injury is also common from contact sports injuries like football, wrestling and rugby.

According to research, “jersey finger” is one of the most common sports injuries affecting the tendons. It may occur when one player grabs the jersey of another player and gets their finger caught on the jersey. When the other player moves, the finger is pulled, and in turn, the tendon is pulled off the bone.

Tendon damage can also occur in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis can involve the tendons, causing them to tear.

How is tendon repair done?
Generally, during tendon repair, a doctor will:

make a little incision in the skin over the damaged tendon
stitch the torn ends of the tendon together
check nearby tissues to make sure no other injuries have occurred such as injury to the blood vessels or nerves
close the incision
cover the area with sterile bandages
immobilize the joint so as to allow the tendon to heal
If there aren’t enough healthy tendons to reconnect, the doctor may perform a tendon graft using a piece of tendon from another part of the body. It may be from the foot or toe. Occasionally, a tendon transfer may be useful in restoring function.

Anaesthesia is used during tendon repair to prevent the patient from feeling pain during the surgery. The types of anaesthesia are:

Local anesthesia. The area where the surgery is to be done is numbed and pain-free.
Regional anesthesia. The surrounding area and the area where the surgery is to be done are numbed and pain-free.
General anaesthesia. The patient is unconscious and unable to feel pain.
Potential risks of having a tendon repair surgery

Risks associated with tendon repair include:
scar tissue, which may form and prevent the joints from moving well
some loss of joint use
stiffness of the joint
re-tearing of the tendon
Risks for anaesthesia include reactions to medication like difficulty breathing, rash or itching. Risks for surgery in general are bleeding and infection.

Recovery and care after surgery
Tendon repairs are normally done on an outpatient basis. This means the patient can go home after the surgical procedure. If the patient does stay in the hospital, it’s usually for a short period of time.

Healing can take up to twelve weeks. The injured tendon may need to be supported with a splint to take tension off of the repaired tendon.

Physical therapy is usually necessary to return movement in a safe manner. Expect movement to return gradually, with some stiffness.

You may need treatment after the surgery to reduce scar tissue. Too much scar tissue can make it hard to move the damaged tendon.

Tendon repair surgery outlook
Tendon repair surgery can be very successful if they’re done along with correct physical therapy. As a general rule, the sooner tendon repair surgery is done after an injury, the easier the surgery and recovery.

In certain cases, long-term complications may develop. Stiffness may be long-lasting. Some tendon injuries like injuries to the flexor tendon in the arm can be very difficult to repair.

Before the surgical procedure, discuss possible outcomes with your doctor so that you have a realistic view of your individual outlook.

Also Known As HPV DNA, High-risk HPV, hrHPV, HPV mRNA, etc

Formal Name: Genital Human Papillomavirus

The human papillomavirus (HPV) test screens for the presence of the human Papillomavirus. It is a virus that can result in the development of genital warts, abnormal cervical cells or cervical cancer.

Your doctor may recommend the HPV test if:

Your Pap test was unusual, showing atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASCUS).

You're age 30 or older.

The HPV screening is available only to women; no HPV test yet exists to identify the virus in men. However, men can be infected with HPV and pass the virus along to their sex partners.

When To Get Tested?

A pap smear is preferable at 5-year intervals or an HPV molecular test alone every 5 years (alternative strategy) when you are a woman at 30 to 65 years old with standard risk.

You may be tested at a younger age and more regularly if you have risk factors, such as a weakened immune system or individual history of precancerous lesions.

If you are a woman between 21 to 29 years old and have an abnormal Pap smear report.

What Sample is Required?

A sample of cells is taken from the cervical region during a pelvic exam using a swab or small brush. The sample is then kept in a bottle containing a special liquid preservative. The same sample of cells can serve for both the Pap smear and the HPV test.

Test Preparation Needed?

It is basically recommended that you desist from having sex, douching, or using vaginal products such as creams, deodorants, or medications for 24 hours before the test. Abide by any instructions you are given. Reschedule the test if you are on your period (menstruating). It may be required of you to empty your bladder before the examination.

What is being tested?

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a collection of more than 150 related viruses. Some types of HPV are considered high-risk because they can be cancerous. HPV testing identifies the genetic material (DNA or messenger RNA) of high-risk HPV (hrHPV), basically to screen for cervical cancer or to determine whether you may be at risk of cervical cancer.

Some kinds of HPV can cause skin warts, while others can cause genital warts (also called condylomata). Genital HPV infection is one of the mainly common sexually transmitted diseases (i.e., spread through oral, anal, or genital sex).

Low-risk HPV—some HPV strains lead to genital warts but barely cause cancer. HPV 6 and HPV 11 cause 90% of all genital warts however are considered "low risk" because they rarely cause cancer. These low-risk types can be diagnosed by visual inspection and, therefore, do not need testing.

High-risk HPV—14 high-risk types of HPV can cause cancer (16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66 and 68). Two HPV types,16 and 18, lead to 80% of all cervical cancers. These high-risk types can be identified with an HPV test.
Many HPV infections do not require recuperation treatment —the body can clear the infection. However, infections with high-risk HPV types that do not resolve can lead to cervical cancer. About all cervical cancers are caused by stubborn infections with high-risk HPV.

In addition, some studies have also revealed that persistent oral infections with high-risk types of HPV are strongly related to oral cancers, as well as cancer of the mouth and throat (oropharyngeal cancer). Anal cancer has also been associated with HPV types 16 and 18. These types are also linked to other cancers, such as those of the vagina and penis. Contact Surjen Healthcare to get tested.

What are Keloids?
A Keloid is formed by a scar from a previous injury which is thickened and raises above the skin. When the skin is injured, fibrous tissue known as scar tissue forms over the wound to repair and defend the injury. In some cases, more scar tissue grows, forming smooth hard growths referred to as keloids.

Keloids may grow larger than the actual wound and they most commonly affect the chest, shoulders, earlobes, and cheeks. However, keloids can affect any part of the body.

They usually pose no threats healthwise (neither contagious nor cancerous) but they may pose cosmetic and personal concerns.

What are the Causes of Keloids?
It is important to note that whatever causes injury and scarring of the skin can potentially cause keloids.

Some of the potential causes include;

1. Cuts

2. Vaccination sites

3. Piercing and punctures

4. Burns

5. Previous surgery scars and injectibles

6. Tattoos

7. Previous skin diseases like chicken pox

8. Folliculitis

9. Insect bites

10. Hormonal changes

Diagnosis of Keloids
The diagnosis is usually inferred from the information you have provided on the progression of the scar. The skin specialist conducts a visual examination of the scar to check its size, shape, and growth pattern. The Skin specialist will also get a proper look into your medical history to rule out the presence of other Skin and general health-related concerns.

What are the symptoms of Keloids
1. Itchy, tender and painful scar

2. Darkening and gradual thickening of the skin and raised skin in the affected area

3. Irritated scar

Keloid and scar treatment in Nigeria
The processes for keloid and scar excision include;

Surgical removal

In the case of large keloids or older keloid scars, surgical elimination is the best-suggested treatment. The advantages of removing a large keloid outweigh the risk of post-surgery scars.

Cryosurgery

This is possibly the most advantageous kind of treatment for keloids, also referred to as cryotherapy, the process works by mainly “freezing” away the keloid with liquid nitrogen.

Corticosteroid injections

The doctor may also advocate corticosteroid injections after surgical operation to decrease irritation and decrease the chance of the keloid returning.

Laser treatment for keloids
For certain kinds of scars (including some keloids), The Doctor may advocate laser treatment. This therapy resurfaces the keloid and surrounding skin with excessive beams of light to create a smoother, more toned appearance.

How to Prevent keloids
The foremost way of preventing keloids is to protect your skin from injury of any sort in the first place.

Others include;

1. Avoid body piercings, tattoos and elective surgeries especially if you are keloid prone.

2. Practice good wound care habits after an injury or any form of trauma to your skin.

3. Follow up your healed wounds with silicone gel especially if you are keloid prone.

Keloid Surgery Cost in Nigeria
Keloid treatment costs depend on the following factors;

1. Location of keloids/site of scar

2. Size of keloids

3. Number of keloids

4. Type of treatment

5. Hospital

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1) Is there a way to permanently remove keloids?

Using a combination of treatments can work to permanently eliminate keloids. One highly recommended method is the introduction of cryo treatment after undergoing a keloid surgery.

2) What is the best medicine for keloids?

Corticosteroid shots before or after surgery under the Doctor's approval have proven to be the best front-line medicine to combat keloids.

3) What is the fastest way to get rid of keloids?

Surgery is the fastest proven means to get rid of Keloids.

4) How do you stop a keloid from growing?

Early treatment can help prevent the further growth of keloids. If you tackle keloids early enough, they may not increase further in size. Medical techniques like freezing have proven to help keloids from further becoming bigger.

5) Can keloids be removed permanently?

Yes, Keloids can be effectively and permanently tackled with a combination of treatments.

6) What are hypertrophic Scars?

Hypertrophic scars are raised thickened scars which form from trauma to the skin. They are very similar to keloids but the thickening and growth of hypertrophic scars do not go beyond the exact site of initial injury.

7) Is Keloid surgery painful?

A numbing cream or injection depending on the type of treatment is used to reduce the pain so you almost do not feel the process.

How long does Keloid removal surgery take?

It takes less than 45 minutes in total but if there are many keloids to be taken out, this duration may vary.

If the need to have a pacemaker fitted arises, a small electrical device known as a pacemaker will be surgically implanted in your chest.

The pacemaker sends electrical pulses to your heart to maintain its regular beat and not too slowly. Having a pacemaker can drastically improve your quality of life if you have problems with a slow heart rate. The piece of equipment can be lifesaving for some people.

In Nigeria, pacemaker implantation is one of the main types of heart surgery carried out, with lots of pacemakers fitted each year.

How a pacemaker works
A pacemaker is a small device around the size of a matchbox or smaller that weighs 20 to 50g.

It consists of a pulse generator, a battery, a tiny computer circuit, and one or more wires known as pacing leads, which is attached to your heart.

The pulse generator sends out electrical impulses through the wires to your heart. The rate at which the electrical impulses are emitted is called the pacing rate.

Roughly all modern pacemakers work on demand. This implies they can be programmed to adjust the discharge rate in response to your body’s requirements.

If the pacemaker senses that your heart has omitted a beat or is beating too slowly, it sends signals at a steady rate.

If it senses that your heart is beating normally, it doesn’t send out any signals.

Most pacemakers have a unique sensor that recognizes body movement or your breathing rate.

This allows them to accelerate the discharge rate when you’re active. Doctors express this as rate responsive.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs)
An implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) is a device like a pacemaker.

It sends a larger electrical shock to the heart that effectively “reboots” it to get it pumping again.

Some devices contain both a pacemaker as well as an ICD.

ICDs are regularly used as a preventative treatment for people thought to be in danger of cardiac arrest at some point in the future.

If the ICD senses the heart is beating at a potentially risky abnormal rate, it’ll send an electrical shock to the heart.

This often aids in returning the heart to a normal rhythm.

A conventional ICD has a pacing lead that’s implanted next to a vein (transvenous).

There’s also a newer model of ICD where the pacing lead is implanted under the skin (subcutaneously).

Why do I need a pacemaker?
The heart is a pump made of muscle, which is controlled by electrical signals.

These signals can turn out to be disrupted for several reasons, which can cause some potentially dangerous heart conditions, such as:

An oddly slow heartbeat (bradycardia)
An oddly fast heartbeat (tachycardia)
Heart block (where your heart beats irregularly due to the electrical signals that control your heartbeat aren’t transmitted correctly)
Cardiac arrest (when a crisis with the heart’s electrical signals makes the heart stop beating altogether).

How is a pacemaker fitted?
Having a pacemaker implanted is a moderately straightforward process.

It’s typically carried out under local anaesthetic, which means you’ll be awake during the procedure.

The generator is typically placed under the skin close to the collarbone on the left side of the chest.

The generator is joined to a wire that’s guided through a blood vessel to the heart.

The surgery often takes about an hour, and most people can leave the hospital on the same day or a day after the procedure.

After pacemaker surgery
You should be able to return to regular physical activities soon after surgery.

As a precaution, it’s normally recommended that strenuous activities are avoided for about 4 to 6 weeks after having a pacemaker fitted.

After this, you should be able to get involved in most activities and sports.

You’ll be able to feel the pacemaker but sooner or later, you’ll get used to it. It may seem a bit weighty at first and may feel uncomfortable when you lie in certain positions.

You’ll be required to attend regular check-ups to ensure your pacemaker is working properly. Most pacemakers save information about your natural heart rhythms.

When you go for follow-up appointments, your doctor can retrieve this information and use it to check how well your heart and the pacemaker are functioning.

Using electrical equipment
Anything that generates a strong electromagnetic field, like an induction hob, can get in the way of a pacemaker.

But most common home electrical equipment like the hairdryers and microwave ovens, won’t be a problem provided that you use them at least 15cm (6 inches) far from your pacemaker.

If you have an induction hob, maintain a distance of at least 60cm (2ft) between the stovetop and your pacemaker.

If this is a trouble, you may want to consider replacing the appliance with something more appropriate.

If you feel dizzy or feel your heart beating faster when making use of an electrical appliance, simply move away from it to allow your heartbeat to come back to normal.

Safety
Getting a pacemaker implanted is usually a very safe procedure with a minimal risk of complications.

The biggest worry is the pacemaker losing its ability to control the heartbeat, either because it malfunctions or the wire moves out of the right position.

It’s sometimes possible to reprogram the pacemaker to correct a malfunction using wireless signals.

However additional surgery may be required if the pacemaker moves out of position.

Alternatives to a pacemaker
In some cases, it may be possible to control an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia) without having a pacemaker fitted.

For instance, Atrial fibrillation can sometimes be treated with medication or a non-surgical procedure known as catheter ablation.

However not everybody with an arrhythmia can be treated in this way, and in many cases, a pacemaker is considered to be the most efficient alternative.

If your cardiologist recommends having a pacemaker fitted, ask them why they think it’s the best choice and talk about any possible alternative treatments you could have.

New Technology
A new, smaller pacemaker around the size of a pill has been developed and is presently being tested in a global clinical trial.

The new device makes use of wireless technology and can be implanted directly into the heart, where it sends electrical impulses from an electrode.

This means a pacing lead isn’t necessary, which lowers the risk of infection and reduces the recovery time associated with implanting traditional pacemakers.

Hepatitis A Virus Antibody test is carried out to ascertain the presence of an infection with the Hepatitis A virus. The test detects the degree of antibodies produced. It is normally ordered if you have symptoms of acute hepatitis like loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, or jaundice. An HAV test can also be ordered if you have been exposed to the hepatitis virus by contaminated water or food.

A positive test for Hepatitis A commonly suggests current infection with Hepatitis A virus. The higher the degree of antibodies, the more widespread the infection or virus.

A negative test suggests the nonexistence of current infection with Hepatitis A Virus. However, it does not imply that the individual never had an infection with the virus.

What is Kyphoplasty?
A compression fracture or a break in one of your vertebrae can be excruciating. It can make movement very difficult. That’s because a break can result in bone fragments rubbing against each other.

Surgery can assist in dealing with such fractures. For example, kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty are minimally invasive procedures that are regularly carried out together. Usually, they can be done without staying in the hospital.

In vertebroplasty, a doctor injects a cement mixture into the bone to provide it with strength.

Kyphoplasty creates space for the mixture. In this procedure, a doctor inserts and inflates a balloon to make an opening for the mixture. The balloon is taken away after the cement is injected. Kyphoplasty is again referred to as balloon vertebroplasty.

Both of these procedures are most likely to be successful if completed within two months of a fracture diagnosis. They can assist relieve pain and enhance mobility when different measures fail to bring relief.

Candidates for Kyphoplasty or Vertebroplasty
These procedures are efficient for treating people whose bones are weakened by cancers or whose vertebrae cave in as a result of osteoporosis, a disease that causes loss of bone density.

Kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty are used to repair new fractures. However, they are not used as a preventive measure, even for osteoporosis. As well, they are generally not advised for herniated disks, back arthritis, or curvature of the spine due to scoliosis.

These two procedures have not been significantly tested in younger, in other words, healthy people. The long-term outcomes of the bone cement aren’t known, so these procedures are usually reserved for elderly people.

What happens during the procedures?
Preparation

Since kyphoplasty is a surgical procedure, your doctor will possibly order some blood assessments earlier than the day of your surgery. Imaging assessments such as an X-ray or MRI scan will assist your doctor in seeing the place or areas that are to be repaired.

In preparation, an intravenous line (IV) will be positioned in a vein in your arm to supply anaesthesia. You may also be given pain and anti-nausea medications, and antibiotics to stop infection. You’ll probably be linked to heart, pulse, and blood pressure monitors.

Procedures

For these procedures, you will be asked to lie down on your stomach. The location in which the needle will be inserted is shaved if necessary and then cleaned and sterilized. A local anaesthetic can also be injected in the same place.

Your doctor then does these steps:

1. The doctor inserts a hollow needle (trocar) in your skin using fluoroscopy, a kind of X-ray, they direct the needle through your muscle and into the right place in your bone.

2. They insert an inflatable balloon into the trocar.

3. The balloon is then inflated to make the space for the bone cement.

4. Once the space is opened up, the mixture is injected to fill it up. Imaging assessments will assist the doctor in verifying that the mixture is well distributed.

5. Once the cement is correctly placed, the needle is taken away.

6. The place is bandaged. Stitches won’t be necessary.

7. Your IV and monitoring device are taken away.

Recovery after the procedure

Following the procedure, you’ll likely continue to be in a healing room for a while. You may also be encouraged to get up and walk around for an hour of the procedure. Some pain is to be expected.

You may be in a position to go home later that day. However, you may want to remain in the hospital for monitoring if:

· Your procedure entails more than one vertebra.

· There have been no complications.

· Your total health is not good.

Your doctor will suggest to you when you can recommence your activities and if you need to take any bone-strengthening supplements or medications. You’ll possibly be requested to plan a follow-up visit to take a look at your progress.

An ice pack can assist relieve instantaneous pain, however, you should feel better within two days.

Complications and risks

All medical procedure has some risk. There’s a probability of contamination or bleeding at the place the needle penetrated your skin. In some cases, nerve injury can lead to numbness, weakness, or tingling. You are likely to have an allergic reaction to the materials used in the procedure.

The Coronary angiography procedure is a key cornerstone in the diagnosis and management of cardiovascular diseases, offering critical insights into the intricate network of blood vessels supplying the heart muscle. This imaging procedure, often referred to as cardiac catheterization, allows visualization of the coronary arteries which helps to identify potential blockages or abnormalities that could lead to serious cardiac complications.

What is Coronary Angiography used for?
Coronary angiography plays a pivotal role in the evaluation and management of various cardiac conditions, including:
1. Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): By visualizing the extent and severity of coronary artery blockages, angiography aids in confirming the diagnosis of CAD and guiding subsequent treatment strategies.
2. Assessment of Cardiac Function: In addition to assessing the integrity of the coronary arteries, angiography provides valuable information about cardiac function, including the pumping capacity of the heart and the presence of structural abnormalities.
3. Guidance for Interventional Procedures: Coronary angiography serves as a roadmap for interventional cardiologists performing procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), where blockages are opened using balloons and stents to restore blood flow to the heart.
4. Risk Stratification: The findings from coronary angiography help clinicians stratify patients into low, intermediate, or high-risk categories, enabling personalized management plans and risk-reduction strategies.

How do you Prepare for a coronary Angiography?
The patient is expected to be on a fast for at least 8 hours before the procedure. The patient should inform the doctor about previous medications they may be on.

Additionally, the patient should inform the doctor of any allergies, an observed reaction to contrast dye in the past, or any kidney conditions they may have. A nurse will run an IV catheter in your vein to give fluids, and administer analgesics and help you feel less anxious.

The Nurse will clean your skin and, if required, shave the area where the catheter will be inserted.


What is done during Coronary Angiography?

Coronary angiography involves the use of contrast dye and X-ray imaging to envisage the coronary arteries, the blood vessels responsible for carrying oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. It is primarily used in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease (CAD), a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque within the coronary arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart.

During coronary angiography, a thin, flexible tube called a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel, typically in the groin or wrist, and threaded up to the heart. Once positioned within the coronary arteries, a contrast dye is injected through the catheter, which illuminates the blood vessels on X-ray images, providing detailed information about the size, shape, and patency of the coronary arteries.
The procedure is performed under local anesthesia, and patients are closely monitored throughout to ensure safety and comfort. In addition to diagnostic purposes, coronary angiography can also serve as a therapeutic intervention, allowing for the simultaneous treatment of blockages through techniques such as angioplasty and stent placement.

How do you Interpret the Results of Coronary Angiography?

The results of a coronary angiography could indicate normal or abnormal findings.

In a normal coronary angiogram, the arteries appear smooth and unobstructed, allowing blood to flow freely to the heart muscle. However, abnormalities may be observed in cases of CAD. These abnormalities include but are not limited to:

1. Stenosis: Narrowing of the arteries due to the buildup of plaque (atherosclerosis). Stenosis can restrict blood flow to the heart and may lead to chest pain (angina) or heart attack.

2. Obstruction: Complete blockage of an artery, which can result in a heart attack if not promptly treated.

3. Collateral Circulation: The development of new blood vessels to bypass blocked arteries, which may be observed in advanced cases of CAD.

The severity of coronary artery disease is often assessed based on the extent and severity of blockages observed during angiography. This is typically done using a scoring system such as the SYNTAX score, which evaluates the complexity and location of blockages in the coronary arteries.

What are the risks of coronary angiography?

Coronary angiography is generally considered a safe procedure, but like any medical intervention, it carries certain risks. Some of the potential risks associated with coronary angiography are;

1. Bleeding: There is a risk of bleeding at the site where the catheter was inserted, particularly if the patient has a bleeding disorder or is taking blood-thinning medications.

2. Infection: Although rare, there is a small risk of infection at the insertion site or within the blood vessels.

3. Allergic Reaction: Some patients may experience an allergic reaction to the contrast dye used during the procedure. This can range from mild itching and hives to more severe reactions such as difficulty breathing or anaphylaxis.

4. Kidney Damage: The contrast dye used in coronary angiography can potentially cause kidney damage, particularly in patients with pre-existing kidney problems. This risk is higher in patients with reduced kidney function.

5. Blood Clots: In rare cases, the catheter used during coronary angiography can dislodge a blood clot, which may travel to other parts of the body and cause complications such as stroke or heart attack.

6. Arrhythmias: The introduction of the catheter into the heart can sometimes trigger abnormal heart rhythms, although these are usually temporary and resolve on their own.

7. Heart Attack or Stroke: While extremely rare, there is a small risk of heart attack or stroke associated with coronary angiography, particularly in patients with pre-existing heart disease or other risk factors.

8. Radiation Exposure: Coronary angiography involves the use of X-ray imaging, which exposes the patient to a small amount of radiation. While the risk of harm from this radiation is low, it can accumulate over time with repeated exposure.

What happens after a Coronary Angiography Procedure?

After the procedure, the patient is usually transferred to a recovery area to be monitored for a while, usually several hours. Important measures that follow include;

1. Monitoring Vital Signs: A nurse closely observes the patient's vital signs, including heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels, to ensure they are stable and recovering well from the procedure.

2. Pressure on the Insertion Site: Pressure is applied to the site where the catheter was inserted to help prevent bleeding and facilitate clot formation. This pressure may be applied manually by a nurse or using a specialized device.

3. Bed Rest: Patients are usually instructed to lie flat and limit movement for a certain period of time to minimize the risk of bleeding or other complications at the insertion site.

4. Fluid Intake and Output: Patients are encouraged to drink fluids to help flush the contrast dye from their system and reduce the risk of kidney damage. They may also be monitored for urine output to assess kidney function.

5. Pain Management: Patients may experience some discomfort or soreness at the insertion site or in the groin area where the catheter was inserted. Pain medications may be provided to help alleviate any discomfort.

6. Post-Procedure Instructions: Before being discharged, patients receive instructions on how to care for the insertion site, when to resume normal activities, and any medications they need to take, such as blood thinners or pain relievers.

7. Follow-Up Appointment: Patient is scheduled for a follow-up appointment with their healthcare provider to review the findings, discuss further treatment plans if any, and answer any concerns or questions the patient may have.

Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)

1. How much Does a Coronary Angiography cost?

This varies from hospital to hospital, and location is also taken into consideration. You can send us an email at info@surjen.com to find out more.

2. What is coronary angiography indicated for?

Coronary angiography is typically recommended when patients present with symptoms suggestive of CAD or when non-invasive tests indicate the possibility of significant coronary artery blockages. Common symptoms and indications that may prompt a healthcare provider to order coronary angiography include:

i. Chest Pain (Angina): Angina is a hallmark symptom of CAD and is often described as a tightness, pressure, or squeezing sensation in the chest. Angina may occur during physical exertion or emotional stress and typically resolves with rest or medication. However, if angina becomes more frequent, severe, or occurs at rest, it may indicate significant coronary artery blockages warranting further evaluation with coronary angiography.

ii. Shortness of Breath: Difficulty breathing, especially during exertion, can be a sign of reduced blood flow to the heart muscle due to coronary artery disease. This symptom, known as dyspnea, may be indicative of underlying CAD and may prompt further investigation with coronary angiography.

iii. Unexplained Fatigue: Persistent fatigue or weakness, particularly if it worsens with physical activity, can be a manifestation of reduced cardiac function secondary to CAD. Coronary angiography may be warranted to assess the extent and severity of coronary artery blockages contributing to these symptoms.

iv. Abnormal Stress Test Results: Stress testing, which evaluates heart function during physical exertion, may reveal abnormalities suggestive of CAD, such as abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG) changes or impaired cardiac perfusion. If non-invasive tests suggest the presence of significant coronary artery disease, coronary angiography may be recommended to confirm the diagnosis and guide further management.

v. Prior History of Heart Attack or Angioplasty: Patients with a history of heart attack (myocardial infarction) or previous coronary interventions such as angioplasty with stent placement may undergo coronary angiography for follow-up assessment of the coronary arteries and evaluation of the effectiveness of prior interventions.

3. Can I have a coronary angiography in Nigeria?

Surjen Healthcare offers you an array of the best and most experienced team of Surgeons both Locally and internationally in the top hospitals across Nigeria for a top-tier healthcare experience.

4. What are the risks of coronary angiography?

While coronary angiography is generally considered safe, there are inherent risks associated with the procedure. These risks include:

i. Bleeding and Hematoma: The insertion site for the catheter, typically in the groin or arm, carries a risk of bleeding. In some cases, excessive bleeding can lead to the formation of a hematoma—a collection of blood outside the blood vessels—which may require additional intervention.

ii. Blood Vessel Damage: Inserting the catheter into the blood vessels can cause injury or damage to the vessel wall. This damage may result in bleeding, blood clots, or other complications.

iii. Allergic Reaction to Contrast Dye: The contrast dye used during coronary angiography contains iodine, which can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. These reactions can range from mild skin rashes to severe anaphylaxis, a life-threatening allergic response.

What is Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load (HBV)?
The Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load test is recommended in case of signs and symptoms of acute hepatitis such as loss of appetite, jaundice, nausea, vomiting, and stomach pain.

Why is Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load performed?
The Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load, test is performed:

For the management of patients with persistent or chronic hepatitis B infection and presently on antiviral treatment

For the diagnosis of hepatitis B for baseline values and in the course of treatment observe patients' response.

What does Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load Measure?
The Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load test measures the definite quantity of hepatitis B existing in a blood sample. This test assists in ascertaining if the Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) is reproduced in the liver. If the HBV viral load is higher than 20,000 international units per millilitre (IU/mL) in an individual with detectable Hepatitis B envelope antigen (HBeAg) then it shows that the virus is lively and has the best possible cause of harm to the liver. Similarly, if the HBV viral load is higher than 2,000 IU/mL in HBeAg-negative persistent or chronic hepatitis B patients then it shows that the virus is lively and has the best possible cause of harm to the liver. If the HBV viral load is above these numbers, treatment is considered paramount.


FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQs)

Q. How can Hepatitis B virus be transmitted?
Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load (HBV) is a member of the Hepadnavirus family. It is transmitted notably by body fluids, particularly serum. It can also be transmitted through sexual transmission or from mother to baby. The majority of the infected individuals recover completely. Whereas, around 1-2% have continual viral replication leading to persistent or chronic hepatitis. The frequency of creating a continual HBV infection in immunocompromised patients is around 5-10% while in neonates it reaches 80%.

Q. Why is it essential to measure Hepatitis B Virus - Viral Load at the point of the cure of HBV infection?
HBV DNA is measured to test if the drug is working to decrease the body’s viral load. Antiviral medicines work by altering the DNA of the virus so that it cannot reproduce effectively. Doctors measure the viral load to be sure that the antiviral is working.

Q. Why is measuring viral load necessary in case of pregnancy?
The pregnant ladies are examined for hepatitis B, along with the measurement of viral load. Pregnant ladies with high viral loads—beyond 200,000 IU/mL—are advised to take antiviral treatment for the duration of their 1/3 trimester of being pregnant according to medical guidelines. This is performed to limit the chance of infecting their newborns. Babies born to HBV-infected ladies can also be infected even if they are immunized at delivery and treated with HBIG (hepatitis B antibodies) if their mothers have excessive viral loads.

Q. How is the blood sample taken?
The healthcare issuer takes a blood sample from the arm. The place from where the blood is to be withdrawn is cleaned with a swab of rubbing alcohol. This is then accompanied by inserting a small needle which has a tube joined to it for gathering blood. Once enough blood gathered is withdrawn, the needle is removed. The place is then covered with a gauze pad.

Q. Is there any risk related to the withdrawal of the blood sample procedure?
As such there is no risk or danger but, in a few cases, bruising, bleeding, and infection at the pierce point can be seen. In very few cases, there can be swelling of the vein after the blood is collected.

What Is A Stomach Ulcer?
Stomach ulcers are also known as gastric ulcers which are painful sores in the stomach lining. Stomach ulcer is a kind of peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcers are any ulcers that affect both the stomach and small intestines.

Stomach ulcers happen when the thick layer of mucus that safeguards your stomach from digestive juices is decreased. This permits the digestive acids to eat away at the tissues that line the stomach, resulting in an ulcer.


What leads to Stomach Ulcers?
Stomach ulcers are always caused with the aid of one of the following:

When you are infected with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).

A condition also called Zollinger-Ellison syndrome can lead to stomach and intestinal ulcers by increasing the body’s production of acid. This syndrome is suspected to be the reason for less than 1 percent of all peptic ulcers.

Using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for a long time, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or naproxen

Symptoms of Stomach Ulcers
A number of signs and symptoms are related to stomach ulcers. The sternness of the signs and symptoms depends on the sternness of the ulcer.

The most frequent symptom is a burning sensation or pain in the middle of your stomach between your chest and belly button. Normally, the pain gets more severe when your stomach is empty, and it can last for a few minutes to some hours.

Other frequent signs and symptoms of Ulcers include:
Nausea or vomiting

Dull pain in the stomach

Weight loss

Not wanting to eat because of pain

Bloating

Feeling easily full

Burping or acid reflux

Dark, tarry stools

Vomit that’s bloody or looks like coffee grounds

Heartburn

Increased pain when you eat, drink, or take antacids

Symptoms of anaemia which can include tiredness, shortness of breath, or paler skin

Discuss with your doctor if you have any signs or symptoms of a stomach ulcer. Although discomfort may also be mild, ulcers can get worse if they are not treated. Bleeding ulcers can become life-threatening.

How are stomach Ulcers Diagnosed?
Diagnosis and treatment will be based on your symptoms and the seriousness of your ulcer. To diagnose a stomach ulcer, your doctor will assess your medical history along with your symptoms and any prescription or over-the-counter medications you’re taking.

To identify H. pylori infection, a blood, stool, or breath test may be requested. With a breath test, you will be told to drink a clear liquid and breathe into a bag, which is then sealed. If H. pylori is present, the breath sample will have higher-than-normal levels of carbon dioxide.

Can stomach ulcers lead to complications?
Yes, untreated or severe stomach ulcers can lead to complications such as bleeding, perforation (a hole in the stomach lining), and gastric outlet obstruction (blockage in the stomach). These complications require immediate medical attention.

Treating Stomach Ulcers

Treatment will differ based on what caused your ulcer. A lot of ulcers can be cured with a prescription from your doctor, but in very few cases, surgery may also be required.

It is necessary to urgently treat an ulcer. Discuss with your doctor about a treatment plan. If you have an ulcer that bleeds actively, you will probably stay in the hospital for an intensive treatment with endoscopy and IV ulcer medications. You may as well require a blood transfusion.

Surgical Treatment
In very uncommon cases, a complicated stomach ulcer will need surgery. This may be the situation for ulcers that:

Do not heal

Bleed

Tear through the stomach

Comes back after treatment

Maintains food from passing out of the stomach into the small intestine

Surgery may include:
Tying off a bleeding artery

Extraction of the whole ulcer

Removing the nerve supply to the stomach to lessen the production of stomach acid

Picking tissue from a different part of the intestines and patching it over the ulcer spot


Healthy diet
It was thought in the past that diet could cause ulcers. We know now this is not true. We also know that while the foods you consume will not lead to or treat stomach ulcers, eating a healthy diet can benefit your intestinal tract and overall health.

On the whole, it’s a good idea to consume a diet with lots of fruits fiber and vegetables


When should you see a doctor?
If you suspect you have a stomach ulcer, see your doctor right away. The both of you can discuss your signs and symptoms and treatment options. It’s imperative to get a stomach ulcer treated on time because without treatment, ulcers and H. pylori can cause:

Perforation: This happens when the ulcer creates a hole in the wall of the digestive tract.

Obstruction (blockage) in the digestive tract: This is because of swelling of inflamed tissues

Stomach cancer: Particularly non-cardia gastric cancer

Bleeding: At the ulcer area that may become life-threatening

Penetration: This occurs when the ulcer goes through the wall of the digestive tract and into some other organ, such as the pancreas

Symptoms of these issues can include those listed below. If you have any of these symptoms, be sure to call your health practitioner right away:

Sudden, sharp pain in your abdomen that doesn’t go away

Trouble breathing

Red or black vomit or stools

Weakness

Prevention of Stomach Ulcers
To stop the spread of bacteria that might lead to a stomach ulcer, wash your hands with soap and water regularly. Also, ensure to clean all of your food and cook it thoroughly as required.

A cesarean delivery — also called a C-section or cesarean section — is the surgical delivery of a baby. It has to do with one incision in the mother’s abdomen and another in the uterus.

Cesarean deliveries are generally prevented before 39 weeks of pregnancy so the child has proper time to develop in the womb. Sometimes, complications arise and a cesarean delivery must be carried out before 39 weeks.

Why a cesarean delivery is performed?
A cesarean delivery is normally done when complications from pregnancy make traditional vaginal birth difficult, or put the mother or child at risk. Sometimes cesarean deliveries are planned early in the pregnancy, but they’re most often done when issues arise during labour.

Reasons for a cesarean delivery include:
Early pregnancy complications

Baby has developmental conditions

Baby’s head is big for the birth canal

The baby is coming out with both feet first (breech birth)

Mother’s health issues, such as high blood pressure or unsteady heart disease

Mother has active genital herpes that may be passed on to the baby

Previous cesarean delivery

Problems with the umbilical cord

Reduced oxygen supply to the baby

Stalled labor

The baby is coming out with the shoulder first (transverse labour)

The risks of a cesarean delivery
A cesarean delivery is becoming a common type of delivery worldwide, but it’s still a major surgery that carries risks for both mother and child. Natural childbirth is still the best option for the lowest risk of complications.

The risks of a cesarean delivery include:
Bleeding

Blood clots

Infection

Injury to the child during surgery

Longer recovery time compared with vaginal birth

Surgical injury to other organs

Breathing problems for the child, especially if performed before 39 weeks of pregnancy

Increased risks for future pregnancies

You and your doctor will discuss your birthing options prior to your due date. Your doctor will also be able to determine if you or your baby are showing any signs of complications that would need a cesarean delivery.

How to prepare for a cesarean delivery
If you and your doctor agree that cesarean delivery is the preferred option for delivery, your doctor will give you full instructions about what you can do to lower your risk of problems and have an itch-free cesarean delivery.

As with all pregnancies, prenatal appointments will have to do with a lot of checkups. This will include blood tests and other examinations to know your health for the likelihood of a cesarean delivery.

Your doctor will make sure to record your blood type in case you need a blood transfusion at some stage in the surgery. Blood transfusions are rarely needed during cesarean delivery, but your doctor will be prepared and ready for any complications.

Even if you are not preparing to have a cesarean delivery, you should always prepare for the unforeseen. At prenatal appointments with your doctor, talk about your risk factors for a cesarean delivery and what you can do to lower them.

How a cesarean delivery is performed
Prior to the surgery, your stomach will be cleaned and you’ll be prepared to receive intravenous (IV) fluids into your arm. This allows doctors to administer fluids and any type of medicine you may need. You will also have a catheter added to keep your bladder empty during the surgery.

Epidural: common anaesthesia for both cesarean deliveries and vaginal, which is injected into your lower back outside the sac of the spinal cord

Spinal block: anaesthesia that’s injected directly into the sac that surrounds your spinal cord, as a result numbing the lower part of your body

General anaesthesia: anaesthesia that puts you into a painless sleep, and is typically reserved for emergencies.

When you have been accurately medicated and numbed, your doctor will make an incision just above the pubic hairline. This is usually horizontal across the pelvis. In an emergency, the incision may be vertical.

Your doctor will first take care of your baby by clearing their nose and mouth of fluids and clamping and cutting the umbilical cord. Your baby will then be handed over to a hospital attendant and they will ensure that your baby is breathing very well and prepare your baby to be put into your arms.

If you’re certain you do not want any more children and have signed the consent, the doctor can tie your tubes (a tubal ligation) at the same time.

Your doctor will fix your uterus with dissolving stitches and close your abdominal incision with sutures.

Following up after a cesarean delivery
At the end of your cesarean delivery, you and your new baby will stay in the hospital for about three days. Directly after surgery, you will be on an IV. This allows for adjusted levels of painkillers to be taken into your bloodstream while the anaesthesia wears off.

Your doctor will persuade you to get up and walk around. This can assist in preventing blood clots and constipation. A nurse or doctor can teach you how to position your baby for breastfeeding so there’s no extra pain from the cesarean delivery incision area.

Your doctor will give you recommendations for home care after the surgery, but you should expect to:

Go gently and rest, especially for the first few weeks

Use correct posture to support your abdomen

Drink plenty of fluids to replace those lost in the course of your cesarean delivery

Seek assistance if you experience symptoms of postpartum depression, such as severe mood

Swings or overwhelming fatigue

Avoid sex for four to six weeks

Take pain medications as needed


Contact your doctor if you experience any of these symptoms:

Breast pain that comes with a fever

Foul-smelling vaginal discharge or bleeding with large clots

Pain when urinating

Signs of infection — for instance, fever over 100 °F, redness, swelling or discharge from the incision site.

What is a CD4 count?
A CD4 count is a test that takes account of the number of CD4 cells in your blood. CD4 cells, also referred to as T cells, are white blood cells that resist infection and play a vital role in your immune system. A CD4 count is taken to ascertain the health of the immune system in human beings infected with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus).

HIV attacks and damages CD4 cells. If too many CD4 cells are lost, your immune system will have problems resisting infections. A CD4 count can assist your healthcare provider know if you are at risk of serious problems from HIV. The test can also be used to see how properly HIV drugs are working.

Other names: CD4 lymphocyte count, CD4+ count, T4 count, T-helper cell count, CD4 percent

What is it CD4 count test used for?
A CD4 count might be used to:

See how HIV is affecting your immune system. This can help your healthcare provider find out if you are at higher risk for troubles from the disease.

Decide whether or not to start or change your HIV medicine

Diagnose AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)

The names HIV and AIDS are used interchangeably to talk about the same disease. However, most people with HIV do not have AIDS. AIDS is identified when your CD4 count is very low.

AIDS is the worst form of HIV infection. It badly destroys the immune system and can lead to opportunistic infections. These are serious, usually life-threatening, conditions that take advantage of very vulnerable immune systems.

You may as well need a CD4 count if you’ve undergone an organ transplant. Organ transplant patients take unique drugs to make sure the immune system does not fight the new organ. For these patients, a low CD4 count is good and shows that the medication is working.

Why should I do a CD4 count?
Your healthcare provider can order a CD4 count when you are first diagnosed with HIV. You will likely be tested again each and every few months to see if your counts have changed on after your first test. If you are being treated for HIV, your healthcare provider may as well order the usual CD4 counts to see how well your medications are working.

How is a CD4 count performed?
A healthcare provider will take a blood sample from a vein in your arm, using a small needle. After the needle is inserted a small amount of blood will be gathered into a test tube or vial. You may experience a little sting when the needle goes in or out. This does not take up to five minutes.

What are the risks related to the test?

There is little risk to having this blood test. You might have mild pain or bruising at the spot where the needle was inserted, however, most symptoms go away quickly.

Interpretation of a CD4 test results
CD4 outcomes are given as a range of cells per cubic millimetre of blood. Below is a list of common results. Your result may be different depending on your health and even the lab used for testing. If you have questions about your results, speak to your healthcare provider.

Normal: Between 500–1,200 cells per cubic millimetre

Abnormal: Between 250–500 cells per cubic millimeter. It means you have a weakened immune system and may also be infected with HIV.

Abnormal: 200 or fewer cells per cubic millimetre. It shows AIDS and an excessive chance of life-threatening opportunistic infections.

While there is no remedy for HIV, there are specific treatments you can take to protect your immune system and prevent you from getting AIDS. Those who have HIV in these present days are living longer, with a healthier life than ever before. If you are living with HIV, it is necessary to see your healthcare provider regularly.

Other CD4 count test may including:

A CD4-CD8 ratio. CD8 cells are any other type of white blood cell in the immune system. CD8 cells are known to destroy cancer cells and other invaders. This test is a comparison of the numbers of the two cells to get a fair idea of immune system function.

HIV viral load, a test that measures the quantity of HIV in your blood

This test can be done at Abuja and Lagos in Nigeria with no stress, since the healthcare provider knows how important it is.

What is a Hip Replacement Surgery?
A hip replacement, also called hip arthroplasty, is a surgical procedure that replaces a damaged hip joint with an artificial joint. This procedure is usually done to relieve pain and improve mobility in people with severe hip injuries or degeneration due to conditions such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Bone and cartilage are removed and replaced with metal and plastic joints. The metal parts of artificial joints are usually made of high-quality stainless steel or titanium, while the plastic parts are made of high-density polyethylene. Artificial joints are designed to mimic the motion of a natural hip joint as closely as possible.

Hip replacement surgery is usually done on an in-patient basis. Patients go home within 2-3 days of surgery. Most people who have had surgery can return to normal activity within a few weeks, but the recovery process varies depending on the individual and the extent of the surgery. It is usually recommended for people with severe hip pain and limited mobility due to hip arthritis or other conditions that seriously damage the hip joint.

What are the causes leading to Hip Replacement Surgery?
Osteoarthritis: Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that occurs when the protective cartilage that protects the ends of bones wears away over time. This can lead to pain, stiffness and reduced mobility in the affected joint.

Rheumatoid Arthritis: Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in the joints, causing pain, stiffness and deformity. It can affect any joint in the body, including the hip joint.

Fractures: Hip fractures and fractures can occur as a result of falls and other injuries. In some cases, fractures can be severe enough to require hip surgery.

Avascular Necrosis: Avascular necrosis is a condition in which the blood supply to the bone is interrupted and the bone dies. This can occur in the hip joint and may require hip replacement surgery to restore joint function.

Other conditions: Other conditions that may lead to hip replacement surgery include hip dysplasia (a congenital condition in which the hip joint is deformed) ankylosing spondylitis (a type of arthritis that affects the spine and hip joints), and osteonecrosis (state of osteonecrosis). where bone tissue dies due to lack of blood flow).

How to diagnose Hip Arthritis for hip replacement surgery
To diagnose hip arthritis and determine whether hip replacement surgery is needed, healthcare providers usually do the following:

Perform a Physical Exam: Your healthcare provider will examine your hip for signs of swelling, tenderness, or mobility.

Order Imaging Tests: X-rays, MRIs, or CT scans can be used to assess the condition of the hip joint and surrounding tissues.

Consider other Factors: Your provider may also take your age, general health, and lifestyle into consideration when deciding whether hip replacement surgery is right for you.
If a total hip replacement is recommended, your healthcare provider will discuss the risks and benefits of surgery and what to expect during and after surgery. It is important to ask questions and fully understand the procedure before making a decision.

Symptoms of Hip arthritis
The most common hip arthritis symptoms are:

Pain: Pain is the most common symptom of hip arthritis and can range from mild to severe. Pain may be felt in the hip joint itself or radiate to the groin, thigh or buttock. The pain may be exacerbated by putting weight on the affected hip.

Stiffness: Osteoarthritis of the hip can make the hip joint stiff and difficult to move. This stiffness may be more noticeable in the morning or during periods of inactivity.

Limited Mobility: when the hip joint becomes stiff and painful, making it difficult for people with hip arthritis to move their legs in certain directions, bend over, or perform certain activities such as climbing stairs.

Swelling: In some cases, joints affected by hip arthritis may swell.

Deformity: Severe osteoarthritis of the hip deforms the joint, and may result in lateral rotation of the leg and visible deformity of the hip joint.

It is important to note that the symptoms of hip arthritis vary greatly from person to person. Some people have mild symptoms that come and go, while others have more severe and persistent symptoms. If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to consult your doctor for proper diagnosis and treatment planning.

What happens after the Hip Replacement Surgery?
You will be hospitalized for 2-4 days. During this time, you will recover from anaesthesia and surgery. You may be asked to begin physical therapy and brisk walking on the first day after surgery.

Prognosis (outlook) of Hip Replacement Surgery?
The prognosis for hip replacement surgery is generally very good. Most people experience significant pain relief and improved mobility after surgery. Many people can return to normal activity and resume high levels of physical activity after a period of rehabilitation. It also depends on several factors, including your health and your level of physical activity. In general, young, healthy patients tend to have better outcomes than older, less healthy patients. It is also important to follow recommended post-surgical rehabilitation programs and take steps to maintain general well-being. This can improve the long-term success of surgery.

It is important to note that hip replacement surgery, like any surgery, carries risks such as infection, bleeding, and possible blood clots. However, the risks are generally small and can be minimized with good preoperative and postoperative care.

How much does hip surgery cost in Nigeria?
The cost of hip replacement surgery in Nigeria depends on many factors such as the type of implant used, the complexity of the procedure and the hospital or clinic where the surgery is performed. In general, hip replacement surgery can be an expensive procedure, costing a few million Naira.

It is important to note that the cost of hip replacement surgery in Nigeria may not be covered by insurance and the patient may have to pay for the surgery out of pocket. Some hospitals and clinics may offer financing options to help patients pay for their surgery.

It is recommended that you obtain quotes from Surjen Healthcare before deciding where to have your surgery. We also recommend that you consult with your insurance company to determine which hip replacement surgery coverage is available.

Delving into the intricate design of the spine also referred to as the vertebral column, reveals a remarkable fusion of strength, flexibility, and protective prowess for the delicate spinal cord. This architectural wonder is composed of a series of bones known as vertebrae, organized into distinct regions: cervical (neck), thoracic (upper back), lumbar (lower back), sacral, and coccygeal.

Despite its inherent resilience, the spine is susceptible to an array of conditions, including herniated discs, spinal stenosis, degenerative disc disease, and spinal fractures. These challenges can impede the spine's seamless functionality and lead to discomfort or pain. In instances where conventional treatments such as physical therapy, medications, and injections fall short of providing relief, the consideration of spine surgery emerges as a viable option.

Choosing the path of spine surgery necessitates careful evaluation, as it entails addressing specific issues within the spine through surgical intervention. This decision-making process involves a collaborative effort between individuals and their healthcare providers, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the potential benefits and risks associated with such a transformative medical procedure. Ultimately, spine surgery stands as a tailored solution, offering the promise of enhanced well-being and improved quality of life for those grappling with spinal challenges.

Lumbar Spondylosis: Understanding the Common Spinal Condition

Lumbar Spondylosis, a common yet often misunderstood spinal condition, impacts millions worldwide, earning aliases like osteoarthritis of the spine or degenerative disc disease. The focal point is the lumbar vertebrae, the lower back region, where wear and tear on spinal discs and joints occur gradually, typically linked to ageing. Over time, intervertebral discs lose water content and elasticity, becoming susceptible to damage or herniation. Simultaneously, facet joints, crucial for smooth spinal movement, may undergo inflammation and arthritic changes.

The hallmark symptoms encompass chronic lower back pain, stiffness, and reduced flexibility. Some may endure radiating leg pain or tingling due to compressed spinal nerves. While lumbar spondylosis isn't entirely reversible, numerous treatment options effectively manage symptoms and enhance life quality. These span physical therapy, pain-relieving medications, lifestyle adjustments, and exercises strengthening core and back muscles. In cases resistant to conservative measures, surgical intervention might be contemplated.

Prevention is a cornerstone in lumbar spondylosis management. Regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight, cultivating good posture, and avoiding prolonged sitting or heavy lifting significantly reduce the risk of developing this condition. Understanding that our spines undergo natural changes with age empowers individuals to proactively engage in practices that support spinal health. Awareness, coupled with informed lifestyle choices, serves as a formidable defence against the progression of lumbar spondylosis.

Aging brings inevitable transformations to intervertebral discs, diminishing their water content and elasticity, and rendering them susceptible to damage. Concurrently, facet joints, vital for fluid spinal movement, may undergo inflammation and arthritic changes. These cumulative effects give rise to lumbar spondylosis, a condition that manifests with a spectrum of symptoms impacting daily life.

The hallmark symptoms—chronic lower back pain, stiffness, and reduced flexibility—underscore the condition's pervasive impact. For some, radiating leg pain or tingling sensations become unwelcome companions, signalling compression of spinal nerves. It's crucial to comprehend that while lumbar spondylosis cannot be entirely reversed, its symptoms can be effectively managed through a range of interventions.

Physical therapy emerges as a linchpin in the treatment arsenal, offering targeted exercises to enhance muscle strength and flexibility. Pain-relieving medications provide symptomatic relief, allowing individuals to regain a semblance of normalcy in their daily lives. Lifestyle modifications, such as maintaining a healthy weight and adopting proper posture, play pivotal roles in preventing further deterioration.

When conservative measures fall short, surgical intervention becomes a consideration. While this step is reserved for severe cases, it underscores the importance of a personalized approach to lumbar spondylosis management. The decision to undergo surgery should be a collaborative one, involving thorough discussions with healthcare professionals and a comprehensive understanding of the potential risks and benefits.


Cervical Spondylosis: A Comprehensive Exploration of Neck Degeneration

Cervical spondylosis, commonly known as cervical osteoarthritis, is an age-related degenerative condition that significantly impacts the cervical spine or the neck region. This condition evolves gradually, stemming from the wear and tear experienced by the spinal discs and joints, leading to transformative changes in the bones and associated structures of the neck.

Understanding the Mechanisms:

As we gracefully age, the intervertebral discs situated between the cervical vertebrae undergo a natural process of losing water content and elasticity. This physiological change renders these discs more susceptible to damage. Consequently, cracks may emerge, and the discs might bulge outward, exerting pressure on adjacent structures, including nerves and blood vessels. Simultaneously, inflammation and degenerative alterations in the facet joints contribute to the intricate web of cervical spondylosis.

Symptoms and Manifestations:

The manifestations of cervical spondylosis typically manifest in the form of neck pain, stiffness, and a diminished range of motion. Some individuals may encounter additional symptoms such as headaches, tingling sensations, or weakness in the arms and hands due to the compression of nerves. The gradual onset of these symptoms underscores the importance of early detection and proactive management.

Exploring Treatment Options:

While cervical spondylosis cannot be fully reversed, numerous treatment modalities exist to effectively manage its symptoms and improve the overall quality of life for individuals affected by the condition. Conservative approaches, including physical therapy, pain-relieving medications, targeted exercises to strengthen neck muscles, and posture correction, play a pivotal role in mitigating discomfort and enhancing mobility. In cases where these conservative measures fall short, surgical intervention becomes a consideration, aimed at decompressing nerves or stabilizing the affected cervical spine.

The Role of Prevention:

Preventive measures are integral to the holistic management of cervical spondylosis. Adopting a healthy lifestyle, practicing proper neck posture, avoiding undue strain on the neck, and incorporating regular neck exercises into one's routine collectively contribute to minimizing the risk of developing or exacerbating the condition.

The Human Element:

The journey with cervical spondylosis is unique to each individual. It involves not only understanding the physiological intricacies of the condition but also addressing the emotional and psychological aspects that accompany it. The impact of cervical spondylosis extends beyond the physical realm, influencing daily activities, relationships, and overall well-being.

In navigating the complexities of cervical spondylosis, a comprehensive approach that integrates medical understanding, personalized treatment plans, and proactive preventive measures is essential. By embracing the multifaceted nature of this condition, individuals can embark on a journey towards managing symptoms, improving functionality, and ultimately enhancing their overall quality of life.

Types of Spine Surgeries
Spine surgeries play a crucial role in addressing various conditions affecting the spinal cord and nerves. Understanding the different types of spine surgeries is essential for individuals considering or undergoing such procedures. In this detailed guide, we will explore ten distinct spine surgeries, shedding light on their purposes, procedures, and potential benefits.

1. Laminectomy Spine Surgery:

Laminectomy, a common spine surgery, involves the removal of the lamina, a bony arch on the vertebra's back. This procedure aims to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or nerves, often recommended for spinal stenosis or herniated discs causing nerve compression. By understanding how laminectomy works, individuals can make informed decisions regarding its potential benefits for their specific conditions.


2. Discectomy Spine Surgery:

Discectomy, a procedure targeting herniated or damaged discs, seeks to alleviate pain, tingling, or weakness caused by nerve compression. This surgery involves removing a portion of the affected disc to relieve pressure on the nerves and restore normal function. A comprehensive look at the discectomy procedure and its applications can empower individuals to navigate their treatment options with confidence.


3. Spinal Fusion Surgery:

Spinal fusion is a surgical technique that joins two or more vertebrae to stabilize the spine, commonly used for conditions like degenerative disc disease and spondylolisthesis. This section delves into the intricacies of spinal fusion, explaining how the procedure limits motion between fused vertebrae, thereby reducing pain and improving overall stability. Insights into its applications empower readers to grasp the potential benefits of spinal fusion surgery for specific spinal conditions.


4. Artificial Disc Replacement Spine Surgery:

Artificial disc replacement, also known as disc arthroplasty, offers an alternative to spinal fusion by replacing damaged discs with artificial ones. This section explores the nuances of the procedure, highlighting its goal of maintaining motion at the affected spinal segment to preserve flexibility. Understanding artificial disc replacement equips individuals with valuable knowledge when considering surgical options for conditions affecting their spinal discs.


5. Foraminotomy Spine Surgery:

Foraminotomy addresses nerve compression resulting from the narrowing of the foramen, the space through which nerve roots exit the spinal canal. This section provides insights into how foraminotomy widens the foramen, creating more space for nerves to pass through. By understanding the purpose and procedure of foraminotomy, individuals can make informed decisions regarding its suitability for relieving their specific nerve compression issues.


6. Vertebroplasty and Kyphoplasty Spine Surgery:

Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are minimally invasive procedures designed to treat vertebral compression fractures. This section explains the techniques involved, such as injecting bone cement to stabilize fractured vertebrae. By exploring the benefits and considerations of these procedures, individuals gain a comprehensive understanding of how vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty can effectively address vertebral compression fractures.


7. Microdiscectomy Spine Surgery:

Microdiscectomy, a minimally invasive version of discectomy, involves smaller incisions and specialized instruments for the removal of herniated disc material. This section details the advantages of this approach, including faster recovery times and reduced disruption to surrounding tissues. A closer look at microdiscectomy provides individuals with a clearer picture of its potential benefits for addressing specific herniated disc issues.


8. Artificial Cervical Disc Replacement Spine Surgery:

Similar to lumbar disc replacement, artificial cervical disc replacement focuses on replacing damaged cervical discs with artificial ones. This section explores the specific considerations and benefits of this surgery, emphasizing its role in maintaining mobility in the neck region. By understanding the nuances of artificial cervical disc replacement, individuals can make informed decisions based on their unique cervical spine conditions.


9. Endoscopic Spine Surgery:

Endoscopic spine surgery utilizes a small tube-like instrument called an endoscope for visualizing and treating spine conditions. This minimally invasive approach results in smaller incisions, reduced scarring, and quicker recovery times. Exploring the advantages and applications of endoscopic spine surgery empowers individuals to consider this innovative option for addressing their specific spinal issues.


10. Spinal Decompression Surgery:

Spinal decompression surgery aims to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or nerves by removing bone or tissue causing compression. This section provides an in-depth understanding of the conditions that may necessitate spinal decompression, such as spinal tumours or deformities. By exploring the intricacies of this procedure, individuals can gain insights into its potential benefits for addressing complex spinal issues.

In conclusion, navigating the world of spine surgeries requires a comprehensive understanding of the diverse procedures available. Each type of spine surgery serves specific purposes, and individuals can make informed decisions by delving into the details of each procedure. This guide aims to empower readers with knowledge, offering a holistic view of spine surgeries, their applications, and potential benefits. Always consult with healthcare professionals to determine the most suitable approach based on individual health conditions.

For bookings or to learn more, go to Surjen Healthcare's website or contact the email or number below

What are Piles (haemorrhoids)?
Piles (haemorrhoids) are swollen veins that occur around your anal region. Piles generally occur in the lowermost part of the anus and can cause severe pain and discomfort. This is due to the blood vessels of the anal region which gets enlarged and leads to stretching of the skin which causes pain. Piles that are bulging out near the anal opening are generally called external haemorrhoids. While the piles that occur on the inner part of the anal opening cannot be felt and are called internal haemorrhoids.

Piles affect people of all ages and gender. This condition can cause a lot of pain and discomfort in your daily life, however, the good news is it can be treated very effectively with a simple piles surgery in Nigeria.

What are the symptoms of Piles?
Symptoms of piles to look out for:

Bleeding: Bleeding during the passing of stool is one of the most common symptoms of Piles and is an indicator of internal piles.

Swelling: Small balloon-like swelling or swellings that can be seen around the anal region, it also causes the anus to feel tender.

Anal Pain: Piles generally cause pain in the anal region and make it difficult for a patient to pass stool.

Lumps near the anus: Lumps on the anal surface are also common symptoms of piles.

Anal Itching: Haemorrhoids or piles can cause severe itching around the anus generally externally.

Slimy Discharge: A slimy discharge passed along with stool is also considered as a symptom of piles

Sore Skin around Anus: Sore skin or skin sticking out after bowel movement around the anus is also a symptom of piles or haemorrhoids.

What causes Piles
A low-fibre diet: Fibre deficient diet causes strain on the movement of the bowels due to harder and smaller stools.

Pregnancy: Pregnancy can cause piles due to an enlarged uterus that may put pressure on the colon which is connected to the anus. Pressure on the anus generally leads to internal piles.

Heavy weight lifting: Heavy weight lifting can cause piles.

Constipation: Constipation puts strain on blood vessels around the anus due to the pressure of pushing stool which may cause piles.

Prolonged Diarrhoea: Diarrhoea may cause piles too due to the passage of loose stool for a prolonged period.

Diagnosis of Piles, Haemorrhoids
The surgeon will diagnose your symptoms before suggesting piles treatment. If you have the symptoms of external piles, the surgeon will generally examine the affected area. If the symptoms indicate internal piles, you may need to get a rectal examination done.

The piles surgery will help in quick recovery from the pain and discomfort. It is generally an effective and permanent solution for Piles.

Treatment of Piles, Haemorrhoids
Haemorrhoidectomy or Piles surgery is a surgical procedure to remove piles or haemorrhoids. You will receive general anaesthesia or spinal anaesthesia in order not to feel pain.

The operation is typically done in a surgery centre. You will presumably go home that same day (outpatient).

What to Expect
Full Recovery takes around 1 to 2 weeks.

Going home after Piles Surgery
• Immediately after the surgery, when you are still under anaesthesia, you will receive a long-acting local anaesthetic. It will last 6 to 12 hours to provide relief from pain after surgery. If you are not staying overnight in the hospital after surgery, you will leave only after the anaesthesia wears off and you have passed urine.

• Someone should assist in driving you home.

Care after Piles Surgery
You can expect little pain after surgery. Your doctor may give you medicines for pain.

For some days after surgery, drink liquids and eat a plain diet (plain rice, bananas, dry toast or crackers, applesauce). Then you may return to everyday foods and gradually increase the amount of fibre in your diet.

Follow-up exams with the surgeon normally are done 2 to 3 weeks after the surgery.

Why Piles Surgery is Done
Piles surgery or Haemorrhoidectomy is proper when you have:

• Very big internal haemorrhoids.

• Internal haemorrhoids that still present symptoms after nonsurgical treatment.

• Large external haemorrhoids that lead to major discomfort and make it hard to keep the anal area clean.

• Both internal and external haemorrhoids.

How Well Piles Surgery Works
Surgery usually treats a haemorrhoid. However, the long-term success of haemorrhoid surgery depends mostly on how well you can change your daily bowel habits to prevent constipation and straining.

Piles Surgery Cost in Nigeria
Piles surgery costs depend upon various factors like;

1. Type of surgery chosen

2. Age and gender of the patient

3. Location and choice of the Hospital

4. Experience of Surgeon

What is TORCH Profile IgG & IgM

The TORCH Profile Test refers to a set of tests carried out on pregnant women to ascertain the presence of certain infections or to monitor newborns for infections triggered by Toxoplasma, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex virus, and a team of different pathogens (TORCH) that may result to maternal illness or delivery defects in the newborn.

Why is TORCH Profile IgG & IgM carried out?

TORCH Profile Test is carried out:

·To detect and assist in the diagnosis of an infection triggered by the TORCH group of pathogens in a pregnant lady (usually in the first trimester), or in a lady planning pregnancy
· To monitor for infections in a lady in case of intermittent miscarriage
· To monitor for infections in a newborn

What does TORCH Profile IgG & IgM Measure?

TORCH Profile test identifies the existence of antibodies against Toxoplasma, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex virus 1 & 2.

TORCH is an acronym which stands for a team of infectious diseases that may happen in a pregnant lady or a newborn, leading to sickness and delivery defects:

Toxoplasmosis: Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection brought on by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. This infection can be passed from the pregnant mother to the unborn infant through the placenta. This infection most often takes place from consuming raw contaminated meat, raw eggs, handling feces of cats, or taking uncooked goat milk.

This infection can cause miscarriage, loss of vision, seizures, hearing loss or some other birth defects in the newborn.

Rubella: Rubella, also known as German measles is induced by the Rubella virus. If the virus infects the baby in the womb, it may result in birth abnormalities like cardiovascular disorders, cardiovascular defects, mental retardation, vision disorders, hearing disorders, etc.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV): Belonging to the herpes virus family, CMV causes overlooked symptoms in adults, however, may pass on to the baby either through the placenta at the time of gestation, or through breast milk. It may lead to disorders, mental retardation, epileptic seizures, etc. in newborns.

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 (HSV 1 and 2): In adults, HSV 1 causes cold sores, and HSV 2 leads to the common sexually transmitted disease genital herpes. A new child may also be infected through HSV while going through the birth canal during delivery. Both HSV 1 and HSV 2 infections in newborns are always very extreme and have an effect on fundamental organs, causing breathing disorders, epileptic seizures, and central nervous system damage which may be incurable even after antiviral treatment.

Other: Other infections consist of Syphilis, Hepatitis B, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Enterovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, Varicella-zoster virus, and Parvovirus B19. Each of these infections can be transmitted to the infant from the mother and lead to bad conditions in the newborn.

Infection by the above pathogens causes the immune system of the body to produce antibodies referred to as immunoglobulins, majorly IgG and IgM against them. IgM is produced and identified in blood at once after infection and gives short-time protection. IgG is produced in blood a period after the infection happens and persists longer. It is in charge of long-term protection from subsequent infections of the equal pathogen. This TORCH Profile Test identifies the presence of immunoglobulins IgG and IgM for the following to observe the existence of an infection:

· Toxoplasma gondii IgG

· Toxoplasma gondii IgM

· Herpes Simplex Virus 1 IgM

· Herpes Simplex Virus 2 IgG

· Herpes Simplex Virus 2 IgM

· Rubella Virus IgG

· Rubella Virus IgM

· Cytomegalovirus IgG

· Cytomegalovirus IgM

· Herpes Simplex Virus 1 IgG

Interpreting TORCH Profile IgG & IgM test results

The absence of antibodies shows a negative result, while the presence of antibodies shows a positive result.

A negative result for both IgG and IgM shows no former or current infection.

The positive result for IgM and a negative result for IgG shows a very current infection.

A positive result for IgG and a negative result for IgM shows an infection that has been there for a very long time which may have been cured already or a vaccination.

A positive result for both IgG and IgM shows a current ongoing infection.

The TORCH Profile is used as a screening test and its results are proven with further or other tests.

Tests Included

Rubella Virus - IgM

Rubella Virus - IgG

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 IgG

Herpes Simplex Virus 1 IgM

Herpes Simplex Virus 2 IgG

Herpes Simplex Virus 2 IgM

Toxoplasma gondii - IgG

Toxoplasma gondii - IgM

Cytomegalovirus IgM Antibody

Asthma, a chronic respiratory condition, affects millions worldwide, yet it remains widely misunderstood. Misconceptions about asthma can lead to stigma, fear, and inadequate management. We'll be debunking some common myths about asthma, providing clarity and understanding for all.

Myth: Asthma is Just a Temporary Condition

Fact: Asthma is a Chronic Disease

Many people mistakenly believe that asthma is a temporary ailment that will eventually disappear. However, asthma is a chronic condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways. While symptoms may fluctuate over time, asthma requires ongoing management to control symptoms and prevent flare-ups. Without proper management, asthma can significantly impact daily life and increase the risk of severe complications such as respiratory failure. It's crucial to understand that asthma is a lifelong condition that requires continuous monitoring and treatment to maintain optimal health and quality of life.

Myth: Only Children Can Have Asthma

Fact: Asthma Can Develop at Any Age

Contrary to popular belief, asthma is not limited to childhood. While it often starts in childhood, asthma can develop at any age, including adulthood. In fact, adult-onset asthma is not uncommon, with various triggers such as allergens, pollution, and respiratory infections playing a role in its development. Moreover, asthma in older adults may present differently and often coexists with other chronic conditions, making diagnosis and management more challenging. Therefore, individuals of all ages need to be aware of asthma symptoms and seek medical attention if they experience difficulty breathing, wheezing, chest tightness, or coughing, regardless of their age.

Myth: Asthma is Contagious

Fact: Asthma is Not Infectious

Some people mistakenly believe that asthma is contagious, spreading from person to person like a cold or flu. In reality, asthma is not an infectious disease. It's a chronic condition influenced by genetic and environmental factors, such as family history, allergies, and exposure to irritants. While asthma symptoms can sometimes resemble those of respiratory infections, asthma itself cannot be transmitted from one person to another through contact or airborne particles. Understanding that asthma is not contagious is essential for dispelling fear and stigma surrounding the condition, allowing individuals with asthma to live their lives without unnecessary social barriers or discrimination.

Myth: Asthma is Just a "Breathing Problem"

Fact: Asthma is a Complex Condition

While asthma primarily affects the respiratory system, it's not merely a "breathing problem." Asthma is a complex condition that can impact various aspects of one’s life, including physical activity, sleep, and emotional well-being. People with asthma may experience symptoms beyond breathing difficulties, such as fatigue, anxiety, and reduced quality of life. Moreover, uncontrolled asthma can lead to complications such as frequent hospitalizations, decreased lung function, and increased mortality rates. Therefore, it's essential to recognize asthma as a multifaceted condition that requires comprehensive management addressing both physical and emotional aspects of health.

Myth: Asthma Medications are Addictive

Fact: Asthma Medications are Safe and Necessary

Some individuals fear becoming dependent on asthma medications, leading them to avoid treatment altogether. However, asthma medications, including inhalers and oral medications, are not addictive. They are necessary for managing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and preventing attacks. With proper use, asthma medications are safe and effective in controlling the condition. Additionally, healthcare providers carefully prescribe asthma medications based on individual needs, adjusting dosages and formulations as necessary to optimize treatment outcomes and minimize side effects. Individuals with asthma must adhere to their prescribed medication regimen and communicate any concerns or side effects with their healthcare provider to ensure optimal asthma management.

Myth: Asthma Only Requires Treatment During Attacks

Fact: Asthma Requires Ongoing Management

A common misconception is that asthma only needs to be treated when symptoms are severe. In reality, asthma requires ongoing management, even when symptoms are mild or absent. This includes taking prescribed medications as directed, avoiding triggers, monitoring symptoms, and having regular check-ups with healthcare providers. Consistent management is key to preventing flare-ups and maintaining asthma control. Furthermore, asthma action plans empower individuals to self-manage their condition by providing guidance on medication use, symptom recognition, and emergency response strategies. By actively managing asthma daily, individuals can minimize the risk of exacerbations and enjoy a better quality of life.

Myth: Asthma is Just a "Hypochondriac" Condition

Fact: Asthma is a Real and Serious Disease

Unfortunately, some people dismiss asthma as a minor or imaginary illness, labelling individuals with asthma as hypochondriacs. This misconception undermines the seriousness of asthma and the challenges faced by those living with the condition. Asthma is a real and potentially life-threatening disease that requires understanding, support, and appropriate medical care. By raising awareness and dispelling myths about asthma, we can foster a more inclusive and supportive environment for individuals with asthma, ensuring they receive the respect, compassion, and comprehensive care they deserve. It's crucial to recognize asthma as a legitimate medical condition that requires empathy, advocacy, and proactive management to improve outcomes and enhance the well-being of those affected by the condition.

By debunking these common misconceptions about asthma, we at Surjen Healthcare hope to promote awareness, understanding, and empathy for individuals living with this chronic condition. Asthma may be prevalent, but it's often misunderstood. With accurate information and compassionate support, we can work together to improve the lives of those affected by asthma and ensure they receive the care and respect they deserve. Education and advocacy are essential in challenging misconceptions and promoting positive attitudes towards asthma, ultimately leading to better outcomes and a higher quality of life for those living with this condition.

Knee replacement surgery or knee arthroplasty, is an increasingly implemented surgical procedure that involves replacing a damaged or diseased knee with an artificial joint made of metal and plastic components. The procedure is commonly recommended for individuals who have severe knee pain or disability due to osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, or other conditions that may have damaged the knee joint.

In the past, knee replacement surgery was typically only recommended for older individuals. However, technological advances have also made the procedure safer and more effective for younger people. In addition, newer artificial joints are designed to last longer and have a lower risk of complications.

When is Knee Replacement Surgery Required?
The decision to undergo knee replacement surgery is typically based on a thorough evaluation conducted by an orthopedic surgeon, which involves the following steps:

1. Medical History and Physical Examination: Your surgeon will gather detailed information about your medical history, including your symptoms, previous treatments, and any other existing health conditions. A physical examination of your knee will be performed to assess its range of motion, stability, and alignment.

2. Imaging Studies: To evaluate the severity of arthritis and the extent of damage to the knee joint, X-rays, MRI, or CT scans may be ordered. These imaging studies also help rule out other potential causes of knee pain, such as tumours or fractures.

3. Conservative Treatment: Before considering knee replacement, your doctor may suggest non-surgical treatment options. These may include physical therapy, medications, bracing, or weight management, aimed at managing your symptoms and potentially delaying the need for surgery.

4. Discussion of Risks and Benefits: Your surgeon will have a thorough discussion with you about the risks, benefits, and alternatives to knee replacement surgery. They will explain the potential outcomes and the recovery process involved in the surgery.

Overall, the decision to proceed with knee replacement surgery is based on a combination of medical evaluation, patient input, and an understanding of the potential benefits and risks involved. The goal is to provide the most suitable treatment plan to improve knee function and relieve pain effectively.

Understanding Knee Replacement Surgery Procedure
Knee replacement surgery involves several essential steps to address damaged bone and cartilage in the knee joint. Here's a breakdown of what happens during the procedure:

1. Removal of Damaged Tissue: The surgeon will carefully remove the damaged bone and cartilage from the thigh bone (femur), shinbone (tibia), or kneecap (patella).

2. Placement of Artificial Joint: An artificial joint, consisting of metal and plastic components, is precisely positioned to replace the removed tissue. The components are securely attached using either special cement or a press-fit method.

3. Alignment and Testing: The surgeon meticulously aligns the artificial joint to ensure proper functionality. The knee's movement and stability are tested to confirm that everything works as intended.

4. Closing the Incision: Once the joint is in place and functioning correctly, the surgeon closes the incision with sutures.

5. Recovery and Monitoring: After the surgery, the patient is taken to a recovery room, where medical professionals closely monitor them for any signs of complications.

The entire surgery typically takes about two to three hours, depending on the patient's condition and the type of procedure performed. It is performed under general anesthesia to ensure the patient's comfort and safety.

After the surgery, patients usually stay in the hospital for about 4-5 days. Physical therapy plays a crucial role in the recovery process and is initiated as soon as the patient's condition is stable. Physical therapy helps the patient regain strength and range of motion in their knee, facilitating a successful recovery and return to normal activities.

Knee replacement surgery is a well-established procedure with a high success rate, and it has helped countless individuals find relief from chronic knee pain and improve their quality of life.

Different Types of Knee Replacement Surgeries
Knee replacement surgeries vary depending on the specific joint or joints being addressed. Here are the main types:

1. Total Knee Replacement: Also known as total knee arthroplasty, this is the most common type of knee replacement surgery. It involves replacing the entire knee joint, including the thigh bone (femur), shin bone (tibia), and knee cap (patella), with artificial components.

2. Unicompartmental Knee Replacement: Often referred to as partial knee replacement, this surgery replaces only one compartment of the knee joint, typically the inside (medial) or outside (lateral) compartment. It is recommended for patients with arthritis confined to a single compartment of the knee.

3. Revision Knee Replacement: This surgery is performed to replace a previously implanted knee joint that has failed or become loose. Revision knee replacements are more complex and carry a higher risk of complications compared to primary knee replacements.

4. Bilateral Knee Replacement: In this procedure, both knees are replaced either simultaneously or at a later stage, depending on the condition of the other knee.

5. Gender-Specific Knee Replacement: These knee replacements are designed to suit the specific anatomy of men or women, providing a better fit and function.

Each type of knee replacement surgery is tailored to meet the patient's individual needs and condition. It is crucial for the surgeon to choose the most appropriate type to ensure the best possible outcome and improve the patient's knee function and quality of life.

What is the recovery time for Knee Replacement Surgery?
Recovery from knee replacement surgery usually takes several weeks and may involve physical therapy to help restore strength and range of motion. Most people are able to return to their normal activities within a few months of the surgery.

What are some benefits of Knee Replacement Surgery
There are several potential benefits to knee replacement surgery, including:

Pain Relief: The most immediate benefit of knee replacement surgery is the relief of pain and discomfort in the knee joint. This can lead to an improvement in quality of life, as well as an increased ability to participate in daily activities and exercises.
Increased Mobility: After surgery, patients typically experience a significant improvement in their ability to move and function. This includes being able to walk farther, climb stairs, and even return to activities such as golfing, swimming, and cycling.
Improved Function and Independence: Knee replacement surgery can help patients become more independent and improve their overall function, which in turn can improve their quality of life. For example, they may be able to do more tasks around the house and return to work.
Long-lasting Results: Knee replacement surgery has a high success rate and the artificial joint can last for many years and in some cases even decades.
Quality of life: [/b]Due to less pain and increased mobility, people who have had knee replacement surgery report an overall improvement in their quality of life. Many people feel happier, less depressed, and more active after the surgery.

[b]What is the success rate of Knee Replacement Surgeries In Nigeria?
In Nigeria, knee replacement surgeries record a quite high success rate according to various medical expert journals with more than enough competent practitioners on the ground to perform the surgery in the country and offer post-surgical care to the patients.

What are common risks in Knee Replacement surgery?
While knee replacement surgery can provide significant relief from pain and improve the patient's ability to move and function, the procedure does come with certain risks. However, as with any surgery, there are also potential risks and complications. These may include infection, bleeding, blood clots, and adverse reactions to anaesthesia.

FAQs About Knee Replacement Surgery
1. What is knee replacement surgery?

Knee replacement surgery, also known as knee arthroplasty, is a surgical procedure aimed at relieving chronic knee pain and restoring mobility in individuals with severe knee joint damage or arthritis. During the surgery, the damaged parts of the knee joint are replaced with artificial implants made of metal, ceramic, or plastic, recreating the joint's smooth movement.

2. Who is a candidate for knee replacement surgery?

Candidates for knee replacement surgery typically include individuals experiencing significant knee pain, stiffness, and reduced mobility, often due to osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, or post-traumatic arthritis. Doctors will evaluate a patient's medical history, physical condition, and imaging results to determine if surgery is the best option.

3. What are the benefits of knee replacement surgery?

Knee replacement surgery can provide substantial benefits, including reduced pain, improved joint function, enhanced mobility, and an overall improvement, in the quality of life. Patients can often return to daily activities and enjoy a more active lifestyle after recovery.

4. Is knee replacement surgery a safe procedure?

Knee replacement surgery is generally considered safe when performed by an experienced orthopedic surgeon. However, like any surgery, it carries some risks, such as infection, blood clots, and nerve or blood vessel damage. Your surgeon will discuss the potential risks and benefits with you before the procedure.

5. What is the recovery process like?

The recovery period after knee replacement surgery varies from person to person. Typically, patients will need to stay in the hospital for a few days after surgery and undergo physical therapy to regain strength and mobility. Full recovery may take several months, and patients are advised to follow their surgeon's instructions for a successful outcome.

6. How long does a knee replacement last?

The longevity of a knee replacement implant depends on various factors, including the patient's activity level, weight, and the type of implant used. On average, modern knee replacements can last 15 to 20 years or more with proper care and maintenance.

7. Are there alternatives to knee replacement surgery?

In some cases, non-surgical treatments like medication, physical therapy, corticosteroid injections, or arthroscopic procedures may be sufficient to manage knee pain and improve function. However, if these options do not provide relief, knee replacement surgery may be the recommended course of action.

8. Can both knees be replaced at the same time?

While it is possible to have both knees replaced simultaneously, the decision depends on various factors, including the patient's overall health and the surgeon's recommendation. In some cases, staging the surgeries (one at a time) may be a safer option.

9. Is knee replacement surgery covered by insurance?

In many cases, knee replacement surgery is covered by health insurance, but the extent of coverage may vary depending on the specific policy. Patients are advised to check with their insurance provider and understand the details of coverage and any out-of-pocket expenses.

10. How can I prepare for knee replacement surgery?

Preparing for knee replacement surgery involves following your doctor's instructions, discussing your medical history and medications, and making necessary arrangements for post-surgery care and support. Engaging in pre-operative exercises and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can also aid in the recovery process.

WHAT IS AN MRI SCAN

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a scientific imaging approach that makes use of magnetic fields and computer-generated radio waves to create precise images of the organs and tissues in your body.

Most MRI machines are large, tube-shaped magnets. When you lie in an MRI machine, the magnetic field briefly realigns water molecules in your body. Radio waves lead these aligned atoms to produce faint signals, which are used to create cross-sectional MRI images.

The MRI Machine can additionally produce 3D pictures that can be evaluated from various angles.

WHY AN MRI IS DONE?
MRI is a noninvasive way for your healthcare practitioner to look at your organs, tissues and skeletal system. It produces high-resolution images of the inside of the body that assist in diagnosing a variety of problems.

MRI of the brain and spinal cord
MRI is the most often used imaging to take a look at the brain and spinal cord.

It's often performed to assist in diagnosing:

• Aneurysms of cerebral vessels
• Disorders of the eye and inner ear
• Multiple sclerosis
• Spinal-cord disorders
• Brain Stroke
• Tumors (Malignant and Benin)
• Brain damage due to trauma

A specific kind of MRI is the functional MRI of the brain (fMRI). It produces images of blood flowing through vessels to certain areas of the brain. It can be used to have a look at the brain's anatomy and determine which parts of the brain are managing crucial functions.

This helps identify important language and motion control areas in the brains of patients being considered for neuro/brain surgery. Functional MRIs are also used to assess damage from a trauma or from degenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

MRI of the heart and blood vessels
• Size and features of the heart's chambers
• Thickness and movement of the partitions of the heart
• Extent of injury brought on by way of coronary heart attacks or coronary heart disease
• Structural issues in the aorta, such as aneurysms or dissections
• Inflammation or blockages in the blood vessels

MRI of other internal organs

• Liver and bile ducts
• Kidneys
• Spleen
• Pancreas
• Uterus
• Ovaries
• Prostate

MRI of bones and joints
• Joint abnormalities or injuries, such as torn cartilage or ligaments
• Disk abnormalities in the spine
• Bone infections
• Tumors of the bones and tender tissues

MRI of the breasts
MRI can be used with mammography to notice breast cancer, in particular in women who have dense breast tissue or who might be at high danger of the disease.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH MRI
Because MRI makes use of powerful magnets, the presence of steel in your body can be a safety hazard if attracted to the magnet. Even if no longer attracted to the magnet, metallic objects can distort the MRI image. Before having an MRI, you will probably complete a questionnaire that includes whether or not you have metallic or digital devices in your body.

Unless the machine you have is certified as MRI-safe, you may no longer be able to have an MRI.

Devices include:

• Metallic joint prostheses
• An implanted heart defibrillator
• Artificial heart valves
• Implanted drug infusion pumps
• Implanted nerve stimulators
• A pacemaker
• Metal clips
• Metal pins, screws, plates, stents or surgical staples
• Cochlear implants
• A bullet, shrapnel or any other type of steel fragment
• Intrauterine device

If you have tattoos or permanent makeup, ask your doctor whether or not they may affect your MRI results.

Before you schedule an MRI, tell your doctor if you think you are pregnant. The consequences of magnetic fields on fetuses don't seem to be nicely understood. Your doctor might advocate an alternative exam or suspend the MRI. Also inform your doctor if you're breast-feeding, specifically if you're to get hold of contrast cloth during the procedure.

It's additionally vital to talk about kidney or liver issues with your doctor and the technologist.

HOW DO YOU PREPARE FOR AN MRI EXAM?
Before an MRI exam, you can continue your normal lifestyle and eat normally until otherwise instructed. You will be requested to wear a gown and to take away below given things that might affect the magnetic imaging, such as:

• Jewellery
• Hairpins
• Eyeglasses
• Watches
• Wigs
• Dentures
• Hearing aids
• Underwire bras
• Cosmetics that contain steel particles

WHAT YOU CAN EXPECT DURING AN MRI EXAM
The MRI machine looks like a long slim tube that has each end open. You lie down on a table which is movable and slides into the opening of the tube. A technologist monitors you from another room. You can talk with the person with the aid of a microphone.

If you have a concern about enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), you may be given a drug to help you experience sleepiness and much less anxiety. Most patients go through the exam without much difficulty.

The MRI machine creates a strong magnetic field around you, and radio waves are directed at your body. The procedure is painless. You don't sense the magnetic area or radio waves, and there are no moving parts around you.

During the MRI scan, the interior section of the magnet produces repetitive tapping, thumping and other noises. You might be given earplugs or have a tune playing to assist block the noise.

In some cases, a contrast dye, generally gadolinium, will be injected via an intravenous (IV) line into a vein in your hand or arm. The contrast dye enhances some specific details.

Gadolinium rarely causes allergic reactions in some people.

An MRI exam may last anywhere from 15 minutes to more than an hour. You have to keep still due to the fact motion can blur the resulting images.

During a functional MRI, you may be requested to perform a number of small tasks — such as tapping your thumb in opposition to your fingers, rubbing a block of sandpaper or answering simple questions. This helps pinpoint the parts of your brain that control these actions.

WHAT HAPPENS AFTER THE TEST?
If you haven't been sedated, you can resume your common lifestyle right after the scan.

RESULTS
A physician in particular educated to interpret MRIs (radiologist) will analyze the MRI images from your scan and document the findings to your doctor. Your doctor will discuss important findings and next steps with you.

What is Hepatitis B Virus Test (HBsAg)?

Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg), also known as Australia antigen exists on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). This test identifies the presence of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) in your blood.

Why is Hepatitis B Virus Test (HBsAg) done?

To discover Hepatitis B virus infection in patients having signs and symptoms suggestive of Hepatitis

To examine for Hepatitis B infection following accidental exposure to HBV e.g. in healthcare workers. Repeat check is recommended 6 weeks after exposure.

To examine for Hepatitis B infection in persons who are in danger of acquiring infection like IV drug users, sex workers, hemodialysis patients, prisoners, etc.

To examine for Hepatitis B infection during pregnancy to avoid transmission of infection from mother to child.

What does Hepatitis B Virus (HBsAg) Measure?

HBsAg test identifies the existence or nonexistence of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) in the blood.

Hepatitis B virus is one of the five major hepatitis viruses, known as type A, B, C, D and E and is the causative agent of Hepatitis B (infection in the liver). Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) is existing on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). HBsAg is present in the blood of patients with viral hepatitis B (with clinical symptoms).

HBsAg is the first marker appearing in the blood at 6 to 16 weeks preceding exposure to HBV. In most instances after an acute infection, this virus clears up on its own in 1 to 2 months after the onset of symptoms. But in some people, the virus does not go away and brings about chronic infection which over the years may lead to liver damage (scarring or cirrhosis) or liver cancer. Persistence of HBsAg for more than 6 months shows the transformation of either a chronic carrier condition or chronic HBV infection.

INTERPRETING HEPATITIS B VIRUS TEST (HBsAg) RESULTS
Interpretations

A "Reactive" or "Positive" HBsAg test result proves that the individual is infected with Hepatitis B virus. If one tests “positive,” then an additional test is required to determine if this is a new “acute” infection a “chronic” Hepatitis B infection or a chronic HBV carrier state.

A "Non-reactive" or "Negative" HBsAg test result proves that the individual is not infected with Hepatitis B virus.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQS)
Q. How is this test carried out?
This test is carried out on a blood sample. A syringe with an exceptional needle is used to withdraw blood from a blood vessel in your arm. The healthcare issuer will tie an elastic band around your arm to make the blood vessels swell with blood. This makes it less difficult to withdraw blood. You may as well be requested to tighten your fist. Once the veins are really visible, the place is cleaned with an antiseptic solution and then the needle is inserted into the blood vessel to gather the sample. You will experience a tiny pinprick at some point in the procedure. Blood samples once gathered will then be sent to the laboratory.

Q. Is there any danger associated with this test?
There is no considerable danger associated with the test. However, bearing in mind that this test has to do with a needle prick to withdraw the blood sample, in very uncommon cases, a patient may have bleeding, hematoma formation (blood series beneath the skin), bruising or infection at the place of needle prick.

Q. What are the indications and symptoms of Hepatitis B?

The signs and symptoms of acute Hepatitis B may no longer be apparent for months after exposure to HBV. However, the most common signs and symptoms are fatigue (weakness), muscle and joint pain, loss of appetite, dark urine, fever, stomach discomfort, and yellowing of the whites of the eyes and skin (jaundice).

Q. Is there any special requirement earlier than the HBsAg test?

No unique requirement or preparation is needed for Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg) test.

Q. How is Hepatitis B transmitted?

Hepatitis B can be transmitted by means of contact with infected blood and body fluids. This can take place during Unprotected intercourse with an infected associate Birth (spread from an infected mom to her infant throughout birth) Sharing needles, syringes, or drug preparation tools Sharing objects such as toothbrushes, razors or medical gear such as a glucose revealer with an infected individual Direct contact with the blood or open sores of an infected individual Exposure to blood from needle sticks or other sharp units of infected individual Skin-penetrating procedures, which include acupuncture, piercing and tattooing may end up in transmission of infection.

Q. Can Hepatitis B be spread via food or water?
No, Hepatitis B virus does not unfold through meals or water, sharing eating utensils, breastfeeding, hugging, kissing, handholding, coughing, or sneezing.

Q. What additional tests your doctor can also order in case of HBsAg test result is positive?
In case of a positive test result, your physician may also order the following tests: Hepatitis B Surface Antibody (anti-HBs), Total Hepatitis B Core Antibody (anti-HBc), IgM Antibody to Hepatitis B Core Antigen (IgM anti-HBc), Hepatitis B “e” Antigen (HBeAg), Hepatitis B e Antibody (HBeAb or anti-HBe), Hepatitis B Viral DNA and Liver Function Test (LFT) for increased liver enzymes.

Q. What are the probabilities that acute Hepatitis infection will grow into a chronic infection?
The probability of acute Hepatitis infection developing into a chronic infection relies upon the age of the individual infected. The possibilities of developing a chronic infection are comparatively excessive if a person becomes infected at a young age. The probabilities are even higher for infected babies, as the price of developing infection may additionally go up to 90%. However, the threat goes down as a child becomes older. Approximately 25%–50% of the young people infected between the ages of 1 and 5 years will have chronic Hepatitis B. On the other hand, about 95% of adults recover absolutely and do not become chronically infected.

Q. How long will the Hepatitis B virus survive outside the body?
The hepatitis virus has the capacity to survive outside the body for up to seven days. In fact, this virus is capable of resulting in infection even for the duration of that time.

Q. How can Hepatitis B be prevented?
Hepatitis B can be greatly avoided by using vaccination. The Hepatitis B vaccine is safe and efficient and must be given in three doses for full protection (at 0, 1, and 6 months).

An aortic valve replacement is a type of open-heart surgery used to treat issues with the heart’s aortic valve.

The aortic valve controls the flow of blood from the heart to the parts of the body.

An aortic valve repair or replacement involves removing a faulty or damaged valve and replacing it with a new valve derived from synthetic materials or animal tissue.

It’s a major surgery that isn’t suitable for everybody and can take a long time to recover from.

When is it essential to replace the aortic valve?
The aortic valve may be required to be replaced for 2 reasons:

The valve becomes narrowed (aortic stenosis) — the opening of the valve gets smaller, obstructing the flow of blood out of the heart

The valve is leaky (aortic regurgitation) — the valve lets blood flow back through into the heart

The problems can get worse over time and in serious cases can lead to life-threatening problems such as heart failure when left untreated.

There are no drugs to treat aortic valve problems, so replacing the valve will be suggested if you’re at risk of serious complications but are otherwise fit enough to have surgery.

How is an aortic valve replacement carried out?
An aortic valve replacement is performed under a general anaesthetic.

This implies you’ll be asleep during the operation and won’t feel any pain while it’s carried out.

During the procedure:
A large cut (incision) about 25cm long is made in the chest to access the heart — although sometimes a smaller cut can be made

Your heart is stopped and a heart-lung (bypass) device is used to take over the job of your heart in the course of the operation

The damaged or faulty valve is removed and replaced with a good one

Your heart is restarted and the opening in the chest is closed

The surgery usually takes a few hours. You will discuss with your doctor or surgeon before the procedure to decide if a synthetic or animal tissue replacement valve is most suitable for you.

Recovering from an aortic valve replacement
You’ll normally need to stay in hospital for about a week after an aortic valve replacement, although it may be 2 to 3 months before you completely recover.

You should take things easy when you first get back home, but you can start to gradually return to your regular activities over the next few weeks.

You’ll be given certain advice about any side effects you can expect while you recover and activities you should avoid.

You won’t often be able to drive for around 4 to 6 weeks and you’ll probably require 6 to 12 weeks off work, depending on your job.

Risks of an aortic valve replacement
An aortic valve replacement is a big surgery and, like any type of surgery, comes with a risk of complications.

Some of the major risks of an aortic valve replacement include:

• Having lung, bladder or heart valve infections

• Blood clots

• Strokes

• A temporarily uneven heartbeat (arrhythmia)

• Decreased kidney function for a few days

The risk of dying from an aortic valve replacement is around 1 to 3%, however, this risk is much smaller than that of leaving serious aortic valve problems untreated.

Most people who survive the operation have a life expectancy close to normal.

Alternatives to an aortic valve replacement
An aortic valve replacement is the most effective remedy for aortic valve conditions.

Alternative procedures are normally only used if open heart surgery is too risky.

Possible alternatives may include:

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) — the replacement valve is directed into place through the blood vessels, instead of through a large cut in the chest

Aortic valve balloon valvuloplasty — the valve is widened with the aid of a balloon

Sutureless aortic valve replacement — the valve is not protected using stitches (sutures) to reduce the time spent on a heart-lung machine.

What Is Carotid Artery Surgery?

In simple terms, Carotid Artery Surgery aims to prevent strokes by removing blockages or narrowing in the carotid arteries, which are major blood vessels in the neck supplying blood to the brain. When these arteries become narrowed due to plaque buildup, it can increase the risk of strokes by reducing blood flow to the brain. The surgery helps to restore proper blood flow and reduce the risk of stroke, especially in individuals who have had symptoms like mini-strokes (transient ischemic attacks) or strokes related to carotid artery disease. Strokes can also cause temporary or permanent brain and bodily impairment and can be critical.

If you have carotid artery disease, a substance referred to as plaque builds up in your passages and limits the flow of blood. If the deposits of plaque — which are made up of compounds such as fats and cholesterol — are substantial enough, they can cut off blood flow to the brain and lead to a stroke.

A surgical procedure known as carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is one way to take away blockages to the proper flow of blood and to limit your risk of a stroke. A CEA is as well regarded as carotid artery surgery.

Purpose of Carotid Artery Surgery

Carotid artery blockages can put off blood to the brain and can lead to a stroke. These blockages can be brought about by plaque, or through a blood clot that has clogged the artery. By performing a CEA, your doctor is making an attempt to preserve blood flowing to your brain in order to stop strokes.

Carotid artery surgical operation helps forestall a transient ischemic attack (TIA). A TIA has the signs of a stroke — such as numbness, difficulties with speech or vision, and difficulty walking — however, they last for a short time.

Your doctor would possibly advise CEA if you meet some criteria, including:

You’ve already had a stroke

You’ve already had a TIA

The blockage of your carotid artery is severe

Preparing for Carotid Artery Surgery
In the days prior to the surgery, your doctor may also wish to carry out tests that will supply them with better information on your arteries. Tests used to get ready for a CEA include:

Carotid Ultrasound: sound waves are used to create an image of the artery

Carotid Angiography: An X-ray makes use of dye to highlight the artery, making the blockages extra visible

Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA): magnetic and radio waves create an image of the artery, often with the use of distinction dye to get a clearer image

Computed Tomography Angiography: X-rays provide a 3D image of the arteries, at times use dye as well

The CEA Procedure

The surgical operation will be conducted in the hospital and usually takes a few hours. There are two types of the CEA.

In the first kind of procedure, your doctor will cut into the artery and take away the blockage. You will be given an anaesthetic, even though it would possibly be solely a local anaesthetic that numbs the particular section of your neck. The doctor may choose to use a local anaesthetic if they want to communicate with you at some point in the procedure to see how your brain is responding.

In the second kind of CEA, the part of the artery that has issues with plaque is turned inside out. The plaque is cleared away and then the artery is returned to its very position. The technical term for this is eversion is carotid endarterectomy.

Once the blockage is removed, the artery is stitched back together and unclamped and the opening in your neck is closed with stitches. You may want to have a drain in your neck to do away with any fluid that has formed there.

After Carotid Artery Surgery

Recovery time varies and you may want to remain in the hospital for more days for monitoring. Your doctor will want to ensure that you don’t have any bleeding, poor blood flow to your brain, or different feasible risk factors for a stroke. However, if your surgical operation is done in the morning and you are doing okay, you might also not want to be there till night.

There may be some pain in your neck, or it can also be challenging to swallow. Your doctor may put you on pain relief and may additionally prescribe an anticlotting medication, like aspirin, for a period to reduce the risk of blood clots.

A carotid angioplasty is another surgical choice for a CEA. During this procedure, a tiny tube is inserted into the artery, and a component of the tube is inflated to get rid of the buildup in your artery.

The inflated balloon pushes the plaque deposits out of the way, reopening the pathway. The doctor would possibly insert a small metal tube referred to as a stent, which is designed to keep the pathway from turning blocked in the future. You may additionally be put on a routine of anticlotting medicinal drugs to make it tougher for your blood to clot. This additionally minimizes the risk of a stroke without surgery.

What is Vitamin D?

Vitamin D assists the body absorb calcium and phosphorus, and maintains healthy bones and teeth. The vitamin D (25-OH) test measures the degree of Vitamin D (25-OH) in the blood which is a beneficial indicator of osteoporosis (bone weakness), rickets (bone malformation), and osteomalacia.

Why is Vitamin D test performed?

To ascertain vitamin D deficiency when calcium concentration is low or a person has signs of vitamin D deficiency such as bone malformation in children (rickets) and bone weakness, softness, or fracture in adults (osteomalacia).

Before commencing medication for osteoporosis.

To observe the appropriateness of medication in patients who are receiving Vitamin Supplements, calcium, phosphorus, and/or magnesium supplements.

To diagnose/monitor problems with the parathyroid gland functioning knowing the parathyroid hormone (PTH) is necessary for vitamin D activation.

To observe the well-being of persons with diseases that meddle with fat absorption, such as cystic fibrosis and Crohn’s disease and in patients who have gone through gastric bypass surgery.

What does Vitamin D Measure?

Vitamin D Test measures the degree of Vitamin D in the blood. Two types of vitamin D can be measured in the blood, 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D. The 25-hydroxyvitamin D is the main form discovered in the blood and is somewhat inactive precursor to the active hormone, 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D. Because of its extended half-life and higher concentration, 25-hydroxy vitamin D is often times measured to determine and observe vitamin D status in persons.

The 25-hydroxyvitamin D test is performed to decide the degree of Vitamin D in your blood, whether it is low or higher than normal. A low degree can be detected if a person is not getting enough sunlight or sufficient dietary vitamin D to meet his or her body's demand or if there is a problem with its absorption from the intestines (cystic fibrosis, Crohn’s disease, who have gone through gastric bypass surgery). Sometimes, drug treatments used to treat seizures (Phenytoin) lead to Vitamin D deficiency by interfering with the transformation to 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the liver. Severe liver and kidney disease can as well result in vitamin D deficiency. A high degree shows excess supplementation of the vitamin.

INTERPRETING VITAMIN D RESULTS
A lower vitamin D degree than the normal reference range shows vitamin D deficiency which can be because of much less sunlight exposure, dietary deficiency or less absorption from the intestine.

A higher vitamin D degree than the normal reference range shows vitamin D intoxication and is typically due to excess supplementation of the vitamin.

Range:
The normal range of nutrition D is measured as nanograms per millilitre (ng/mL) or nmol/L and can differ from lab to lab.

Level Reference range (ng/mL)

Deficiency <20

Insufficiency 20-29

Sufficiency 30-100

Toxicity >100

Note: There can be seasonal variants in 25 (OH) vitamin D levels, with values being 40-50% lower in winter than in summer. It is also affected by sunlight, latitude, pores and skin pigmentation, sunscreen use, and hepatic function.

· 25 (OH)vitamin D range can vary with age

· 25 (OH) vitamin D degree is multiplied all through pregnancy.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ’s)

Q. How is this check performed?
This test is carried out on a blood sample. A syringe with a first-rate needle is used to withdraw blood from a blood vessel in your arm. The healthcare practitioner will tie an elastic band around your arm to make the blood vessels swell with blood. This makes it simpler to withdraw blood. You may as well be requested to tighten your clenched fist. Once the veins are absolutely visible, the place is cleaned with an antiseptic solution and then the needle is inserted into the blood vessel to acquire the sample. You will sense a tiny pinprick for the duration of the procedure. Blood sample once taken will then be dispatched to the laboratory.

Q. Is there any preparation needed prior to the test?
Inform the healthcare provider about the medications you may be taking. No other specific preparations are normally needed prior to this test.

Q. What is Osteomalacia?
Osteomalacia is the softening of the bones due to demineralization (the loss of minerals) and is most observed by the depletion of calcium from bone. It is an attribute of vitamin D deficiency in adults. Osteomalacia can also be triggered with the aid of bad dietary consumption or terrible absorption of calcium and other minerals needed to harden bones.

Q. What are the sources of Vitamin D?
Vitamin D is obtained from endogenous sources and exogenous sources. Endogenous sources are produced in our body when our skin is exposed to sunlight. Whereas, exogenous sources can only be derived from other sources, as they are now not produced in our bodies. Dietary sources of vitamin D comprises of fish, eggs, solid dairy products, and dietary supplements.

Q. What does the Vitamin D test result mean?
A below-normal stage indicates vitamin D deficiency, it can manifest in conditions such as lack of exposure to sunlight, dietary deficiency of vitamin D, liver and kidney diseases, low food absorption in cystic fibrosis and Crohn’s disease, and in patients who have gone through gastric bypass surgery. Along with that, using some drugs such as phenytoin, phenobarbital, rifampin, etc. can lead to vitamin D deficiency. These reduced levels of vitamin D can also be found in babies who solely feed on breast milk. Such toddlers can be given formula milk, as it is fortified with vitamin D. An elevated degree of vitamin D is referred to as hypervitaminosis D or vitamin D toxicity. This is in many instances induced by way of taking too a great deal of vitamin D and can result in elevated or high calcium levels in the body (hypercalcemia). It can also cause kidney and blood vessel damage.

Q. Who should be tested (checked) for Vitamin D?
Vitamin D 25 (OH) should be tested in people who are presently going through medication to forestall or treat osteoporosis, and patients having signs and symptoms of low calcium level (hypocalcemia) or excessive calcium degree (hypercalcemia). It ought to be performed in patients with cystic fibrosis, Crohn’s disease, and with gastric bypass surgery, patients receiving vitamin D treatment who do not exhibit medical improvement. Along with that, these tests can be carried out in aged people, specifically people with minimal exposure to sunlight, younger people and adults with suspected rickets and osteomalacia, respectively, and babies who are completely breastfed.

Q. What are the factors which can influence the 25-OH Vitamin D levels?
There can be a number of factors that can affect 25-OH diet Vitamin D levels among Nigerians, some of them are defined below:

Seasonal variation: Ideally, all samples should be taken in one season. The reason is, that there can be seasonal differences in 25 (OH) vitamin D levels, with values being a 40-50% decrease in wintry weather than in summer. This can have an effect on the absorption rate of Vitamin D.

Age: Older adults have a reduced level of 7-dehydrocholesterol, so they cannot synthesise 25(OH) vitamin D. Along with that, the manufacturing of active hormone (1,25 dihydroxy Vitamin D3) gets decreased by their kidneys.

Skin colour: Melanin in the darker skin reduces the capacity to produce 25(OH) Vitamin D from sunlight exposure, as it absorbs the sunlight.

Body mass index/nutrition: Obese men and women (body mass index >30 kg/m2) are deficient in Vitamin D, as Vitamin D is fat-soluble. This is because it gets sequestered in the fat and will not be capable of circulating. As a result, the rate of absorption of Vitamin D remains low in chubby patients in contrast to other healthful individuals.

Certain drugs like phenytoin (seizure drug), phenobarbital, rifampin, cholestyramine, orlistat, steroids, and stimulant laxatives can reduce Vitamin D levels. Other than these, Vitamin D can be influenced through sunlight, latitude, sunscreen use, and hepatic function.

Q. What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis among Nigerians is a circumstance of fragile bones with accelerated susceptibility to fracture. Vitamin D and calcium deficiency are one of the main causes of osteoporosis. Other causes can be genetics, lack of exercise, non-public records of fracture as an adult, cigarette smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, history of rheumatoid arthritis, low body weight, and family history of osteoporosis. Usually, osteoporosis does not happen by itself until bone fractures occur. X-rays and bone mineral density tests can assist diagnose osteoporosis.

Penectomy is a surgical procedure done to remove all or part of the penis. This procedure is normally used to treat penile cancer. Penile cancer is a collection of cancerous cells either inside or on the surface tissue of the penis.

Removing the penis is a medical procedure that isn’t undertaken lightly because it has both physical and psychological consequences. Doctors may recommend the procedure if your situation warrants it. Although it’s mostly used if you have penile cancer, in rare cases it might be recommended if you have severe penile trauma.

Surgical procedures
If penectomy is recommended, the surgical procedure can involve different methods. It can be total or partial and may involve additional surgical procedures.

Total penectomy involves the removal of your entire penis. In this case, doctors will create a new urinary opening in the perineum. The perineum is the section between the scrotum and the anus. This is called perineal urethrostomy.

Partial penectomy involves removing the end of your penis but leaving the shaft intact.

Both surgical procedures may be carried out under either general or spinal anaesthesia. This means that you either sleep throughout the operation or remain awake but totally numb in the area of the surgery. Additional steps that may be necessary include removal of the testicles scrotum, and lymph nodes. Surgery to remove the penis and testicles is known as emasculation, but this is usually done only in the case of very advanced cancers. In some situations, such as the cancer invades deep tissue, it may be necessary to take out some of your lymph nodes.

To check if the sentinel lymph node is affected, doctors will inject a radioactive dye close to the cancer. The sentinel lymph node is the first node to which cancer is likely to spread. When that dye is seen at a lymph node, the lymph node is taken out and evaluated. Depending on the results, if cancer is found, other lymph nodes will also be removed. If no cancer is found, further surgery isn’t necessary.

Testing of the lymph nodes in the groin requires an incision to be made into the groin so the lymph nodes can be extracted for evaluation. Stage one cancer offers various options for treatment. This may include circumcision if tumours are just in the foreskin or a more thorough surgery like:

Mohs surgery

Wide excision

Partial penectomy

Recovery from surgery
After penectomy surgery, whether total or partial, you’ll usually need a short stay in the hospital, normally only one or two nights. It’s possible that a temporary catheter will be fitted to drain your bladder. The doctor will give you directions on how to use and care for your catheter if needed.

If you have a partial penectomy, you would still be able to urinate through the remaining penis while standing up. A total penectomy forms a new urinary opening in the perineum. This will mean that you have to sit down to urinate.

You’ll be given medications to prevent blood clots, infections, and constipation. Your doctor will also give you medication to help manage your pain. Your doctor will also tell you the activities to avoid.

You may need a friend or family member to take care of daily activities initially while you recover. Let the person helping you know what things you are not able to do and what help you need.

Self-care
It’s important to take all your medications as instructed by your doctor. This helps prevent pain, infections and constipation.

You’ll also want to help your lungs recover from the anaesthesia. Your doctor may recommend lung exercises. Deep breathing and relaxation can also aid in maintaining lung health and facilitate drainage of lymphatic fluid. You should perform breathing and lung exercises several times every day for the first week.

Complications of penectomy
Like all surgery, penectomy carries risks. Some of these complications can arise either during surgery or afterwards. They may appear right after or overtime during your recovery period. Some complications can be temporary, but others may be permanent.

Besides risks typically associated with all surgery, such as a reaction to anaesthesia or bleeding too much, there are others associated only with penectomy. These include:

Infection

Chronic pain

Narrowing of the urethra

Blood clots

Being unable to have sexual intercourse

Having to sit while urinating.

Additionally, there is the possibility of lymphedema. This refers to local swelling as a result of blockage in the lymphatic system.

Outlook
Although the cancer may be completely removed, life after surgery may lead to psychological issues. After partial penectomy, full intercourse may be possible for you. The remaining shaft of your penis can still become erect. It normally gains enough length to achieve penetration. Even without the sensitive head, you should be able to reach orgasm and ejaculate.

After total penectomy, full intercourse is not possible but, with effort, you can still achieve pleasure. You reach orgasm through the stimulation of sensitive areas, like the scrotum and the skin behind it.

Feelings of stress, depression, or questioning your identity are understandable. Talking with a counsellor may be helpful for you.

Surgical penis reconstruction may be possible. If this is of interest to you, ask your doctor about it.

The Coronary angiography procedure is a key cornerstone in the diagnosis and management of cardiovascular diseases, offering critical insights into the intricate network of blood vessels supplying the heart muscle. This imaging procedure, often referred to as cardiac catheterization, allows visualization of the coronary arteries which helps to identify potential blockages or abnormalities that could lead to serious cardiac complications.

What is Coronary Angiography used for?
Coronary angiography plays a pivotal role in the evaluation and management of various cardiac conditions, including:

1. Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): By visualizing the extent and severity of coronary artery blockages, angiography aids in confirming the diagnosis of CAD and guiding subsequent treatment strategies.

2. Assessment of Cardiac Function: In addition to assessing the integrity of the coronary arteries, angiography provides valuable information about cardiac function, including the pumping capacity of the heart and the presence of structural abnormalities.

3. Guidance for Interventional Procedures: Coronary angiography serves as a roadmap for interventional cardiologists performing procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), where blockages are opened using balloons and stents to restore blood flow to the heart.

4. Risk Stratification: The findings from coronary angiography help clinicians stratify patients into low, intermediate, or high-risk categories, enabling personalized management plans and risk-reduction strategies.

How do you Prepare for a coronary Angiography?

The patient is expected to be on a fast for at least 8 hours before the procedure. The patient should inform the doctor about previous medications they may be on.

Additionally, the patient should inform the doctor of any allergies, an observed reaction to contrast dye in the past, or any kidney conditions they may have. A nurse will run an IV catheter in your vein to give fluids, administer analgesics and help you feel less anxious.

The Nurse will clean your skin and, if required, shave the area where the catheter will be inserted.

What is done during Coronary Angiography?
Coronary angiography involves the use of contrast dye and X-ray imaging to envisage the coronary arteries, the blood vessels responsible for carrying oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. It is primarily used in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease (CAD), a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque within the coronary arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart.
During coronary angiography, a thin, flexible tube called a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel, typically in the groin or wrist, and threaded up to the heart. Once positioned within the coronary arteries, a contrast dye is injected through the catheter, which illuminates the blood vessels on X-ray images, providing detailed information about the size, shape, and patency of the coronary arteries.
The procedure is performed under local anaesthesia, and patients are closely monitored throughout to ensure safety and comfort. In addition to diagnostic purposes, coronary angiography can also serve as a therapeutic intervention, allowing for the simultaneous treatment of blockages through techniques such as angioplasty and stent placement.

How do you Interpret the Results of Coronary Angiography?

The results of a coronary angiography could indicate normal or abnormal findings.

In a normal coronary angiogram, the arteries appear smooth and unobstructed, allowing blood to flow freely to the heart muscle. However, abnormalities may be observed in cases of CAD. These abnormalities include but are not limited to:

Stenosis: Narrowing of the arteries due to the buildup of plaque (atherosclerosis). Stenosis can restrict blood flow to the heart and may lead to chest pain (angina) or heart attack.
Obstruction: Complete blockage of an artery, which can result in a heart attack if not promptly treated.
Collateral Circulation: The development of new blood vessels to bypass blocked arteries, which may be observed in advanced cases of CAD.
The severity of coronary artery disease is often assessed based on the extent and severity of blockages observed during angiography. This is typically done using a scoring system such as the SYNTAX score, which evaluates the complexity and location of blockages in the coronary arteries.

What are the risks of coronary angiography?

Coronary angiography is generally considered a safe procedure, but like any medical intervention, it carries certain risks. Some of the potential risks associated with coronary angiography are;

1. Bleeding: There is a risk of bleeding at the site where the catheter was inserted, particularly if the patient has a bleeding disorder or is taking blood-thinning medications.

2. Infection: Although rare, there is a small risk of infection at the insertion site or within the blood vessels.

3. Allergic Reaction: Some patients may experience an allergic reaction to the contrast dye used during the procedure. This can range from mild itching and hives to more severe reactions such as difficulty breathing or anaphylaxis.

4. Kidney Damage: The contrast dye used in coronary angiography can potentially cause kidney damage, particularly in patients with pre-existing kidney problems. This risk is higher in patients with reduced kidney function.

5. Blood Clots: In rare cases, the catheter used during coronary angiography can dislodge a blood clot, which may travel to other parts of the body and cause complications such as stroke or heart attack.

6. Arrhythmias: The introduction of the catheter into the heart can sometimes trigger abnormal heart rhythms, although these are usually temporary and resolve on their own.

7. Heart Attack or Stroke: While extremely rare, there is a small risk of heart attack or stroke associated with coronary angiography, particularly in patients with pre-existing heart disease or other risk factors.

8. Radiation Exposure: Coronary angiography involves the use of X-ray imaging, which exposes the patient to a small amount of radiation. While the risk of harm from this radiation is low, it can accumulate over time with repeated exposure.

What happens after a Coronary Angiography Procedure?

After the procedure, the patient is usually transferred to a recovery area to be monitored for a while, usually several hours. Important measures that follow include;

1. Monitoring Vital Signs: A nurse closely observes the patient's vital signs, including heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen levels, to ensure they are stable and recovering well from the procedure.

2. Pressure on the Insertion Site: Pressure is applied to the site where the catheter was inserted to help prevent bleeding and facilitate clot formation. This pressure may be applied manually by a nurse or using a specialized device.

3. Bed Rest: Patients are usually instructed to lie flat and limit movement for a certain period of time to minimize the risk of bleeding or other complications at the insertion site.

4. Fluid Intake and Output: Patients are encouraged to drink fluids to help flush the contrast dye from their system and reduce the risk of kidney damage. They may also be monitored for urine output to assess kidney function.

5. Pain Management: Patients may experience some discomfort or soreness at the insertion site or in the groin area where the catheter was inserted. Pain medications may be provided to help alleviate any discomfort.

6. Post-Procedure Instructions: Before being discharged, patients receive instructions on how to care for the insertion site, when to resume normal activities, and any medications they need to take, such as blood thinners or pain relievers.

7. Follow-Up Appointment: The patient is scheduled for a follow-up appointment with their healthcare provider to review the findings, discuss further treatment plans if any, and answer any concerns or questions the patient may have.

What is Prostate enlargement disease?
The Male reproductive system comprises the penis, the testes, the vas deferens, seminal vesicles and the prostate gland. The prostate is a gland found under the bladder and surrounds the urethra between the pubic bone and the rectum. It plays a vital role in the part of the male reproductive system that produces the fluids that contain sperm. Prostrate enlargement simply means that the prostate gland has increased in size and this is referred to as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

What causes prostate enlargement?
An enlarged prostate can either be due to a condition known as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or prostate cancer.

Diagnosis of enlarged prostrates
The Prostrate Specific Antigen test (PSA) and the digital rectal examination are the most commonly used methods for the detection of prostate cancer. click here to book a Prostate examination and prostate-specific antigen test.

Symptoms of enlarged prostate
The major noticeable symptoms of enlarged prostrates are;

Urinary incontinency (inability to hold urine)

pains around the groin and discomfort.

For prostate cancer, the symptoms will vary at each stage.

Why is the Prostate removed?
The Surgery done for the partial or total removal of the prostate is referred to as a prostatectomy.

The most common reasons for prostate surgery are;

1. Prostate cancer

2. An enlarged prostate also known as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

What is Prostate cancer?
Prostrate cancer is a type of cancer that starts at the prostrate. It is the most common type of cancer in men. As with most other cancers, abnormal cells begin to divide and grow uncontrollably which have the potential to spread into other parts of the body. Prostrate cancers are generally grouped into localised, locally advanced and metastatic stages.

Localised prostate cancer; This is a type of cancer that only affects the prostate and usually doesn't spread to other parts of the body.

Locally advanced prostate cancer; is a type of cancer that has spread from the prostate gland to nearby tissues such as the rectum.

Metastatic prostate cancer; at this stage, the cancer would have spread throughout the body reaching the bones.

What causes prostate cancer?
Prostrate cancer can be caused by one or a combination of factors which include:

Age

Genetics and ethnicity

Pre-existing medical conditions

Lifestyle habits

Diagnosis of Prostate cancer
The Prostrate Specific Antigen test (PSA) and the digital rectal examination are the most commonly used methods for the detection of prostate cancer.

What are the signs of Prostate cancer?
Prostrate cancer may not show signs or symptoms in the earliest stages but however, a person with prostate cancer may experience generalised symptoms such as;

Difficulty urinating
Severe back pain
Fatigue
Weight loss

Prostate cancer surgery in Nigeria
There are various treatment options for prostate cancer depending on the stage. You should consult a doctor to discuss the best-fit option regarding your treatment, and to book a Doctor's appointment and consultation.

Surgery however is the main and permanent treatment for prostrate cancer. This procedure is referred to as prostatectomy (Permanent removal of the prostate gland). Other treatment options include;

HIFU (High intensity focused ultrasound)

Hormone therapy

Cryotherapy

Radiotherapy

HIFU treatment of Prostate cancer
This is the use of high-frequency waves to destroy the cancer cells. This is usually done to combat prostate cancer in its earliest stages when cancer may not have spread from within the prostate to other parts of the body.

Hormone therapy treatment of Prostate cancer
Testosterone determines the growth rate of prostate cancer so hormone therapy takes advantage of this to inhibit or lower the amount of testosterone in the body which will in turn reduce the growth and possibility of recurrence for prostrate cancer.

What is Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)?
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland in men. BPH would usually cause the prostate to increase in size which affects the flow of urine. This commonly affects men who are aged 50 and above.

Causes of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
Though there is no single pointer as to what causes Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, research suggests that a group of factors such as age, family history and other medical conditions such as Bladder infection and even hormonal changes accompanied by ageing may cause one to be pre-disposed to Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH).

Diagnosis of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
The Prostrate Specific Antigen test (PSA) and the digital rectal examination are the most commonly used methods for the detection of prostate cancer. click here to book a Prostate examination and prostate-specific antigen test.

Symptoms of Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)
The symptoms are very easy to spot and they usually include the following;

Troubled/strained urinating

Frequent urination

Visibly enlarged prostrates

painful urination

blood stained urine

lack of urine control (incontinence)

Frequent urination in the nighttime

What is the treatment for enlarged prostrates (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia)?
Before treatment, education is the first step to deciding the procedure you will undertake. There are different types of prostate removal procedures but the collective focus and purpose of the various treatments is to:

Cure your condition

Minimize side effects

Maintain urinary continence (uncontrollable urine)

Maintain the ability to have erections

Minimize pain before, during and after surgery

There are two major types of surgery for the correction of enlarged prostrates and they are:

Radical prostatectomy

Open simple prostatectomy

The surgeon will further discuss and explore available options with you upon consultation.

How to Prevent Enlarged Prostrates
Certain lifestyle modifications like diets to prevent and manage underlying diseases like blood pressure, heart diseases, etc. can reduce the chances of being predisposed to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

What is the Cost of Prostrate Surgery in Nigeria?
Prostrate surgery cost depends on a variety of factors such as;

1. Type of surgery

2. Age of the patient

3. Location of the hospital

4. Duration of stay at the hospital

5. After-care packages