This Assignment covers the following Topics:
1. The Concept Research Design
2. The Conceptual definition of Research Design
3. Types of Research Design
4. Pros and Cons of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Research
5. Different Between Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Research
6. Application of Research to Business
7. Mixed Research ( Triangulation) Reasons for Advocating References
8. Survey: Types, Pros and Cons
9. Comparative Analysis
10. Comparing Experimental, Observation Techniques

RESEARCHED BY:

KINGSMOND, KINGSLEY EHIMARE
MAT NO: ---------

Research Methods
(BUS802)

Department of Business Administration
Faculty of Business Administration
University of Lagos

©2018

1.0 Preamble to the conceptual definition of research design:
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means with regards to an enquiry or a research design are taken. It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a way which seeks to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in process.

1.1 Meaning and Definition of Research Design
According to Kerlinger (1986), “Research Design in the plan, structure and strategy of study conceived in order to get answers to research questions and also to control variance.” It is a thorough outline of how a study is going to take place. It will generally consist of how data is to be collected, what tools will be used, how the tools will be used and the intended means for analyzing collected data.
It is the determination and statement of the general research approach or approach followed for the specific task. It is the heart of planning. If the design sticks to the research objective, it will guarantee that the client’s needs, will be served. – David J Luck and Ronald S Rubin

According to Green and Tull (1978), “It is the specification of techniques and processes for obtaining the information required. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project which states what data is to be gathered from which source by what processes.”
Research Design is a set of advanced decisions that make up the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information according to Alvin and Ronald (2003).
In view of the above definitions, I can summary say, the research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. Note that your research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the other way around. In other words the research design is defined as, it is the plan for collecting and utilizing data so that desired information can be obtained.

1.2 Different Types of Research Designs
The research design is the structure of a scientific work. A good research design will obviously describe the strategy to be employed for choosing samples, collecting data, managing costs along with other factors which are important for conducting research.
It is crucial that you select a suitable research design before any research is started. Various types can be classified as:
1. Historical Research Design – The idea is to gather, validate, and synthesize evidence to establish facts which defend or oppose your hypothesis. It makes use of primary sources, secondary sources, and a lot of qualitative data sources for example logs, diaries, official data, reports, and so on. The issue is that the sources need to be both authentic and valid.

2. Case Study: It is an in-depth investigation of a specific research problem as opposed to a sweeping statistical survey. It is usually employed to limit a very wide area of research into one or a few easily research-able examples. The case study research design can also be helpful for testing whether a particular theory and model actually pertains to phenomena in real life. It is a useful design if not much is known about a phenomenon.
3. Descriptive research: Descriptive research includes much government backed research such as the population census, the gathering of a broad range of social indicators and economic information for example household expenditure patterns, time use studies, employment and crime statistics.

4. Causal Design: Causality research could be regarded as understanding a phenomenon with regards to conditional statements in the form, “If A, then B.” This kind of research is utilized to determine what affect a certain change may have on present norms and assumptions. The majority of social scientists seek causal explanations which reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect takes place when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, results in, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

5. Longitudinal Research Design
A longitudinal study consists of a panel, which is a fixed sample of elements. The elements could be shops, retailers, individuals, or other entities. The panel, or sample, stays relatively constant over time, despite the fact that members may be added to replace dropouts or to keep it representative. The sample members in a panel are calculated regularly over time, in contrast with the one-time measurement in a cross-sectional study.

6. Cross-Sectional Design: Cross-sectional research designs have 3 exclusive features: no time dimension, reliance upon present differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are chosen according to existing differences as opposed to random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a number of people, subjects, or phenomena instead of change. As a result, researchers employing this design can only use a relative passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

7. Correlation or Prospective Research Design: It tries to discover relationships to make predictions. It uses one set of subjects with a couple of variables for each.
8. Cohort Design: A cohort study is a research program looking into a specific group with a certain trait, and observes over a period of time. A few examples of cohorts may be those who have taken a certain medicine, or have a medical problem.

9. Observational Design: This kind of research design draws a conclusion by evaluating subjects against a control group, in situations where the researcher doesn’t have control over the experiment. There are a couple of general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people realize that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures include any way of studying behavior where individuals have no idea they are being observed. An observational study allows a good insight into a phenomenon and eliminates the ethical and practical complications of establishing a large and cumbersome research project.

10. Experimental Research Design: This design is best suited in controlled settings for example labs. The design assumes random assignment of subjects and random assignment to groups (A and C). It tries to investigate cause and affect associations where causes could be manipulated to generate different types of effects. Due to the requirement of random assignment, this design can be challenging to carry out in the real world (non-laboratory) setting.

11. Philosophical Design: This method makes use of the tools of argumentation based on philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for instance, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to evaluate arguments about fundamental problems, or to discuss the cause of existing discourse about a research problem.

12. Explanatory Research: It concentrates on why questions. For instance, it is one thing to describe the crime rate in a nation, to analyze trends over time or to compare the rates in various countries. It is quite a different thing to develop explanations regarding why the criminal activity rate is as high as it is, why some kinds of crime are growing or why the rate is higher in some nations than in others.
Research design provides direction and systematizes the research. The research design details the real research problem and the process for solving it. This work was originally done by Universaltecher.com (2017).

Qualitative Research & Quantitative Research
There are two general research approaches, which are qualitative research and quantitative research. These two research approaches are used for research theory and method. They are differentiated since quantitative methodology uses numerical analysis, but qualitative methodology focuses on non-numeric and descriptive 6 researches to understand the situation, Chen and Hirschheim (2004).

Qualitative research is mainly exploratory research. It is used to gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations; their sample consists of small number of non-representative cases. Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques by Given and Lisa (2008).
It usually quantifies the data and generalizes the results from sample to the population of interest; it often uses large number of representative cases as sample. Another difference between qualitative and quantitative research is the collection and analysis of data. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques and the data analysis are non-statistical. Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than qualitative data and the data analysis is statistical and measurable.

Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research design is one type of research design.
Exploratory research is the most commonly unstructured, informal research. It is undertaken to gain background information about the general nature of the research problem Alvin and Ronald (2003).

The central purpose is to formulate hypotheses regarding potential problems and opportunities present in the decision situation. The hypotheses can be tested at a later phase with a conclusive research design Leinhardt (1980).

Exploratory research can be used in the following situations base on the different research objectives such as:
a) To identify relevant courses of action
b) When you must define the problem more precisely
c) To develop hypotheses
d) To gain additional insights before an approach can be developed
e) Establish priorities for further research
f) Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
For the objective of identification of problem, it can be assisted through three ways, which are; searching secondary sources, interviewing knowledgeable persons, and compiling case histories Malek and Massoud (2011).

Data Collection
Data collection is of great importance in research study. It is the process of gathering and measuring information for future analysis, further to make important decisions. In qualitative researches, the significance of the phenomenon is constructed and understood by collecting data Merriam (2002).
The phase of data collection has big influence on assessment. Thus, we need to pay much attention to this process. First of all, we need to clarify the different types of data. Two main types of data are qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data is not given numerically and deals with descriptions; data can be observed but not measured, such as colors, tastes, appearance, etc. On the contrary, quantitative data is numerical. The data can be measured, such as length, height, time, and speed.
A variety of methods are available for conducting data collection. These methods contain data collection through secondary research, face-to-face interviews, case studies, experience, surveys and questionnaires. In the following subsection, we will use interview and case study method to collect data. We will try to avoid biases, which are the difference between what the data says and what it looks like in reality, since bias would lead to bad decisions.
Secondary data collection We can find the secondary data in the library and the Internet, which include books, journals, magazines, special reports, company cases and previous studies. Secondary data is mainly collected in exploratory and qualitative studies Saunders et al (2007).

1.3 The Pros and Cons of Qualitative and Quantitative Researches
Despite the criticism that qualitative methods are interpretive and invalid as scientific evidence, the real discrepancy lies within the types of data that each method produces. Quantitative data measures quantifiable terms, such as "how much," "how long" and "how many," while qualitative data measures the reasons behind behavior, such as the "how" and "why." While neither method is "better" than the other, there are advantages and disadvantages to both.
Qualitative: Pros
Qualitative research allows one to explore topics in more depth and detail than quantitative research. Also, qualitative research is often less expensive than quantitative research, because you don’t need to recruit as many participants or use extensive methods. Another pro of qualitative research is that it offers flexibility as far as locations and timing because you don’t need to interview a large number of people at once.

Qualitative: Cons
One major disadvantage of qualitative research is that it cannot quantify how many of your audience answer one way or another. This makes it extremely difficult to create any type of solid statistic. Another con is that you cannot generalize your findings. As opposed to quantitative surveys, qualitative research does not allow you to use your findings as a basis for a broader audience or the public in general.
Quantitative: Pros
One of the pros to quantitative research involves the fast speed that data can be collected. This data can also be analyzed fairly quickly. In addition, using statistically valid random samples, a survey can quickly be generalized to the entire population. Another advantage involves the planning process for programs and messages. With the reliable, repeatable information that quantitative surveys can provide, a trusted set of statistics can give confidence when making future plans. Quantitative research can also be anonymous, which is useful when dealing with sensitive topics. Another major pro of quantitative research is that it allows you to generalize your findings beyond the participant group.
Quantitative: Cons
One con of quantitative research is the limited ability to probe answers. Also, people who are willing to respond may share characteristics that don’t apply to the audience as a whole, creating a potential bias in the study. In addition, quantitative research experiments can be costly.

.........................................................................................................................................................

Hi there, I’m Kingsley, Kingsmond Ehimare (Dip., B.Sc., M.Sc., AHR.) Business-strategic Psychologist, Business cognitive Coach.
...........................................................................................................................................................
Ps: Please feel free to contact me for your research, assignments, free contributor on kingsmond.com1@gmail.com; instagram:kcmond & twitter:@kingsmond.com

https://web.facebook.com/kingsmond/
http://twitter.com/kingsmond_com
https://instagram.com/kcmond

1.4 So what is the difference between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research?
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
Used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics.
2. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.
3. Is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research
4. Unstructured or semi-structured response options Fixed response options
5. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota The sample size is typically large, and respondents are most times randomly selected
6. Time expenditure lighter on the planning end and heavier during the analysis phase Time expenditure heavier on the planning phase and lighter on the analysis phase
7. Text-based Number-based
8. Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on skill and rigor of the researcher Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on the measurement device or instrument used
9. More subjective: describes a problem or condition from the point of view of those experiencing it More objective: provides observed effects (interpreted by researchers) of a program on a problem or condition
10. Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory or hypotheses Primarily deductive process used to test pre-specified concepts, constructs, and hypotheses that make up a theory
11. Less generalizable More generalizable
12. Methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and reviews of documents for types of themes Surveys, structured interviews & observations, and reviews of records or documents for numeric information

1.5 Survey Definition & Types
If you've ever been sitting at a train station, a particular lecturer's classroom, or in a public area and a person with a stack of papers in his hands comes up to you out of the blue and asks if you have a few minutes to talk, then you have likely been asked to take part in a survey.
There are a lot of ways to conduct research and collect information, but one way that makes it really easy is by doing a survey. A survey is defined as a brief interview or discussion with individuals about a specific topic. The term survey is, unfortunately, a little vague, so we need to define it better. The term survey is often used to mean 'collect information.' For instance, you may imagine a researcher or a television scientist saying, 'We need to do a survey!' (I know, riveting television).
So, besides our definition above, survey also means to collect information. We have our first definition of a brief interview, and we have a second definition of collecting data. There is a third definition for survey. This third definition of survey is a specific type of survey research. Here are the three specific techniques of survey research:
• Questionnaires - a series of written questions a participant answers. This method gathers responses to questions that are essay or agree/neutral/disagree style.
• Interviews - questions posed to an individual to obtain information about him or her. This type of survey is like a job interview, with one person asking another a load of questions.
• Surveys - brief interviews and discussions with individuals about a specific topic. Yes, survey is also a specific type of survey, to make things even more confusing. A survey is a quick interview, with the surveyor asking only a few questions.
Using Surveys
So, why are those people hanging around train stations and other public places? The reason is due to the nature of surveys and the purpose of study. A study is designed to collect information about a topic (for instance, 'how do you feel about Bigfoot voting rights?') and then analyze the collected information to draw a conclusion. The people hanging out in public areas are trying to collect the data. Each survey technique offers strengths and weaknesses, which will be explored in a moment. It is the job of the researcher to weigh those strengths and weaknesses against the needs of their study (people are against Bigfoot voting rights).
All of the surveys offer relatively quick ways of collecting information, and this lesson will show how a researcher might employ surveys in their methodology. Let's say you, as a researcher, are interested in pet ownership and people's views on it.
Questionnaires
If you use questionnaires, you will sit down and write up some questions that you need answers to. This can go in several ways:
• Open ended questions where the participant fills in the answer with their thoughts. For example, 'What do you think of pet ownership?' This is useful for a descriptive study, but there is very little here that you can analyze statistically.
• Multiple-choice questions allow for statistical analysis such as, 'Do you think pet ownership is a good thing for people - agree, neutral, or disagree.' However, you may miss some personal feelings or thoughts on the situation.
Using questionnaires allows a researcher to utilize several strengths. For example:
• It allows for minimal contact between researcher and participant.
• Multiple avenues, such as handing them out in person, using snail mail, email, and online survey engines, can be used.
• Participants' answers are readily recorded on the forms.
Questionnaires aren't all sunshine and happy times, though. There are some weak points that need to be addressed. For instance:
• The questions and instructions must be written extremely clearly or participants will answer in incorrect ways.
• There is little ensuring participants finish a survey, meaning they may return it half-finished and therefore useless.
• The cost of printing out hundreds of questionnaires can quickly become very expensive.
Interviews
The second option, interviews, is very much like an in-person job interview. One person sits across from the other and asks questions. The researcher will record what is being said, usually with a tape recorder or video camera, so that the conversation can be reviewed later.
Like all studies, interviews have several strengths and weaknesses. Some of the strengths include:
Advantages of Surveys
High Representativeness
Surveys provide a high level of general capability in representing a large population. Due to the usual huge number of people who answers survey, the data being gathered possess a better description of the relative characteristics of the general population involved in the study. As compared to other methods of data gathering, surveys are able to extract data that are near to the exact attributes of the larger population.

2. Low Costs
When conducting surveys, you only need to pay for the production of survey questionnaires. If you need a larger sample of the general population, you can allot an incentive in cash or kind, which can be as low as $2 per person. On the other hand, other data gathering methods such as focus groups and personal interviews require researchers to pay more.
3. Convenient Data Gathering
Surveys can be administered to the participants through a variety of ways. The questionnaires can simply be sent via e-mail or fax, or can be administered through the Internet. Nowadays, the online survey method has been the most popular way of gathering data from target participants. Aside from the convenience of data gathering, researchers are able to collect data from people around the globe.

4. Good Statistical Significance
Because of the high representativeness brought about by the survey method, it is often easier to find statistically significant results than other data gathering methods. Multiple variables can also be effectively analyzed using surveys.

5. Little or No Observer Subjectivity
Surveys are ideal for scientific research studies because they provide all the participants with a standardized stimulus. With such high reliability obtained, the researcher’s own biases are eliminated.

6. Precise Results
As questions in the survey should undergo careful scrutiny and standardization, they provide uniform definitions to all the subjects who are to answer the questionnaires. Thus, there is a greater precision in terms of measuring the data gathered.

Disadvantages of Surveys
1. Inflexible Design
The survey that was used by the researcher from the very beginning, as well as the method of administering it, cannot be changed all throughout the process of data gathering. Although this inflexibility can be viewed as a weakness of the survey method, this can also be a strength considering the fact that preciseness and fairness can both be exercised in the study.
2. Not Ideal for Controversial Issues
Questions that bear controversies may not be precisely answered by the participants because of the probably difficulty of recalling the information related to them. The truth behind these controversies may not be relieved as accurately as when using alternative data gathering methods such as face-to-face interviews and focus groups.

3. Possible Inappropriateness of Questions
Questions in surveys are always standardized before administering them to the subjects. The researcher is therefore forced to create questions that are general enough to accommodate the general population. However, these general questions may not be as appropriate for all the participants as they should be.


1.6 Application to Business
Businesses of all types and sizes undertake extensive research methods to improve and grow. The long term success of a startup, medium sized business and even established business depends on efficient and cost effective research undertaken.
Companies often rely on various business research methods to obtain information from the consumers or other businesses. Such business research methods undertaken enable a company to do an in depth study about several internal and external factors influencing the market share and profitability of the company.

1. The Major Areas Survey Applied in Business Are:
Conducting surveys is a very common method adopted by businesses to gather larger amount of information or data immediately at a very low cost. Due to large popularity of this method of business research, a standard survey sample is easily available for companies which they can put together to ascertain relevant information. See it from the sequence:
a. Uncover the answers. In a non-intimidating survey environment, you will learn about what motivates survey respondents and what is important to them, and gather meaningful opinions, comments, and feedback. A non-intimidating survey environment is one that best suits the privacy needs of the survey respondent. Respondents are more likely to provide open and honest feedback in a more private survey method. Methods such as online surveys, paper surveys, or mobile surveys are more private and less intimidating than face-to-face survey interviews or telephone surveys.
b. Evoke discussion. Give your survey respondents an opportunity to discuss important key topics. Communicate with your respondents about your survey topic. This allows you to dig deeper into your survey, and can incite topics related to your survey within a broader perspective.
c. Base decisions on objective information. Conducting surveys is an unbiased approach to decision-making. Don’t rely on “gut feelings” to make important business decisions. You can collect unbiased survey data and develop sensible decisions based on analyzed results. By analyzing results, you can immediately address topics of importance, rather than waste time and valuable resources on areas of little or no concern.
d. Compare results. Surveys results provide a snapshot of the attitudes and behaviors – including thoughts, opinions, and comments – about your target survey population. This valuable feedback is your baseline to measure and establish a benchmark from which to compare results over time.
Based on the information obtained through the different business research methods, companies whether new or established can undertake some essential business decisions such as the following-
• Possibility of the business to survive and succeed in a new geographical region
• Assessment about competitors
• Adopting a suitable market approach for a product
Businesses may choose to adopt either one or all of the below discussed research methods to achieve their business goals:
2. Case Studies
The business research method of case study is generally undertaken by those business houses who want a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the consumer response about a particular product or service.
Case studies primarily help a business in the following ways:
• Thorough assessment of consumer satisfaction.
• Consumer attitudes and opinion about a product.
Though case study method of business research is time consuming, it helps in the collection of in depth information about customer’s likes, dislikes and preferences thus throwing light on strength and weakness of a specific product or service.
3. Interviews
Companies rely on this method of business research to track actual consumer experiences with respect to a particular product or service. Consumers are asked specific questions which they have to answer at length based on which companies get a clear picture about the level of consumer satisfaction, experience of the consumer in lieu to a product or service.
The main advantage of this research methodology is the chance to ask follow up questions which throws light about the consumer response with respect to a specific product or service. The only drawback is that a careless interviewer can partially influence the response provided by interviewee. Also this method of business research tends to be time consuming.
4. Focus Groups
Focus group can be described as a in between research methodology among the various business research methods. The idea behind undertaking this method of business research is to obtain an honest suggestion and feedback from the consumers about a specific product or service.
The focus groups aim to provide a larger sample as compared to interviews and case studies. The only drawback from undertaking this type of research is that there are chances of the facilitator in asking irrelevant questions which might divert the research in a particular direction thus defeating the ultimate purpose of the analysis undertaken.
Among the different methods of data gathering for research purposes, the survey method is preferred by many researchers due to its various advantages, strengths and benefits. However, surveys also have their disadvantages and weak points that must be considered.

1.7 Mixed Research (Triangulation)
By mixing both quantitative and qualitative research and data, the researcher gains in breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to using each approach by itself. One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed methods research is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the same phenomenon. Triangulation allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon more accurately by approaching it from different vantage points using different methods and techniques. Successful triangulation requires careful analysis of the type of information provided by each method, including its strengths and weaknesses.
Mixed Methods Research Designs
The field of mixed methods has only been widely accepted for the last decade, though researchers have long been using multiple methods, just not calling them “mixed.” Mixed methods research takes advantage of using multiple ways to explore a research problem.
Basic Characteristics
• Design can be based on either or both perspectives.
• Research problems can become research questions and/or hypotheses based on prior literature, knowledge, experience, or the research process.
• Sample sizes vary based on methods used.
• Data collection can involve any technique available to researchers.
• Interpretation is continual and can influence stages in the research process.
Why Use Mixed Methods?
The simple answer is to overcome the limitations of a single design. A detailed answer involves:
• To explain and interpret.
• To explore a phenomenon.
• To develop and test a new instrument.
• To serve a theoretical perspective.
• To complement the strengths of a single design.
• To overcome the weaknesses of a single design.
• To address a question at different levels.
• To address a theoretical perspective at different levels.
Some strength
• Can be easy to describe and to report.
• Can be useful when unexpected results arise from a prior study.
• Can help generalize, to a degree, qualitative data.
• Helpful in designing and validating an instrument.
• Can position research in a transformative framework.
Some weaknesses
• Time required.
• Resolving discrepancies between different types of data.
• Some designs generate unequal evidence.
• Can be difficult to decide when to proceed in sequential designs.
• Little guidance on transformative methods.
Methodologist John Creswell suggested a systematic framework for approaching mixed methods research. His framework involves four decisions to consider and six strategies.
Four Decisions for Mixed Method Designs (Creswell, 2003, p. 211)
1. What is the implementation sequence of data collection?
2. What method takes priority during data collection and analysis?
3. What does the integration stage of finding involve?
4. Will a theoretical perspective be used?
Six Mixed Methods Design Strategies Creswell (2003)

1. Sequential Explanatory
• Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a collection and analysis of qualitative data.
• Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a quantitative study.
2. Sequential Exploratory
• Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis.
• Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when developing and testing a new instrument
3. Sequential Transformative
• Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase.
• Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective.
4. Concurrent Triangulation
• Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent.
• Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one method with the strengths of another.
5. Concurrent Nested
• Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and guides the project, while another is embedded or “nested.”
• Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than the dominant or to seek information from different levels.
6. Concurrent Transformative
• Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices.
• Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.
When to use it?
Mixed methods research is particularly suited:
• When one wants to validate or corroborate the results obtained from other methods.
• When one needs to use one method to inform another method. For instance, when little is known about a topic and it is necessary to first learn about what variables to study through qualitative research, and then study those variables with a large sample of individuals using quantitative research.

Triangulation is a measurement technique often used by surveyors to locate an object in space by relying on two known points in order to ‘‘triangulate’’ on an unknown fixed point in that same space. Early on, social scientists borrowed the concept of triangulation to argue for its use in the validation process in assessing the veracity of social science research results. There are alternative perspectives on the use of triangulation that argue for its usefulness as ‘‘dialectical’’ process whose goals seek a more in-depth nuanced understanding of research findings and clarifying disparate results by placing them in dialogue with one another.
This special issue of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research
(JMMR) analyzes and explores the variety of ways triangulation is used in mixed methods research and the range of issues and controversies surrounding triangulation praxis. To date, there are few scholarly in-depth discussions of its deployment in mixed methods research. The choice of triangulation as the topic for this first special issue of JMMR is based on the claims made by many scholars in the field that triangulation provides a justification for the use of mixed methods.

The contributors to this volume raise many questions about the meaning of triangulation, its philosophical positioning in the mixed methods community, and strategies for using triangulation in the design of mixed methods studies, analysis and interpretation of data, and making visible subjugated voices. They take provocative positions, suggesting that qualitative, constructivist, and interpretive pathways provide greater potential for research to address the social good than has been possible using mixed methods approaches that are more closely aligned with the post positivist paradigm.

1.8 Collecting Data:
There are a few standard ways of collecting data: use already existing data, survey a sampling of the population, design an experiment, use a census, and use a simulation.
• In relation to statistics, a "census" is broadly defined as a list of ALL individuals in the population along with characteristics regarding each individual. A "census" is extremely difficult to obtain. Imagine trying to survey millions of college students, for example, to determine if college students preferred iPhones or Android phones.
• A "simulation" uses a model (such as a computer model) to replicate the conditions of a process or situation. Simulations are commonly used when actual conditions are too expensive, dangerous, impractical or unethical to replicate in real life.
Observational Study - In an observational study, the sample population being studied is measured, or surveyed, as it is. The researcher observes the subjects and measures variables, but does not influence the population in any way or attempt to intervene in the study. There is no manipulation by the researcher. Instead, data is simply gathered and correlations are investigated. Since observational studies do not control any variable, the results can only allow the researcher to claim association, not causation (not a cause-and-effect conclusion).
An example of an observational study:
Is there a correlation between attending an SAT Prep class and scores achieved on the SAT Examination for this school year? In an attempt to investigate this possible correlation, a group of students who took the SAT Examination are surveyed. The scores from students who took an SAT Prep class are compared with the scores of those that did not take an SAT Prep class. A statistical analysis is performed on the data. This is an observational study since the researcher did not manipulate the sample set.
Surveys - Surveys are one form of an observational study, since the researchers do not influence the outcomes. Statistical surveys collect information from a sample group to learn about the entire population. A survey may focus on opinions or factual information depending upon the purpose of the study. Surveys may involve answering a questionnaire or being interviewed by a researcher. The Nigeria Census is a type of survey.
Advantages of surveys: Disadvantages of surveys:
• can be administered in a variety of forms (telephone, mail, on-line, mall interview, etc.)
• are efficient for collecting data from a large population
• can be designed to focus only on the needed response questions
• are applicable to a wide range of topics • are dependent upon the respondent's honesty and motivation when answering
• can be flawed by non-response
• can possess questions or answer choices that may be interpreted differently by different respondents (such as the choice "agree slightly"
Randomization and a well-designed survey:
A sample population is considered random if the probability of selecting the sample is the same as the probability of selecting every other sample. When a sample is not random, a bias is introduced which may influence the study in favor of one outcome over other outcomes.

Designed Experimental Study - Unlike an observational study, an experimental study has the researcher purposely attempting to influence the results. The goal is to determine what effect a particular treatment has on the outcome. Researchers take measurements or surveys of the sample population. The researchers then manipulate the sample population in some manner. After the manipulation, the researchers re-measure, or re-survey, using the same procedures to determine if the manipulation possibly changed the measurements. Since variables are controlled in a designed experiment, the results allow the researcher to claim causation (a cause-and-effect conclusion).
In a randomized experiment, researchers control the manipulation of the sample populations using a chance mechanism, such as flipping a coin or using a computer to generate random numbers. Randomization is important for experimental studies so the researcher can know that it was the treatment given to the population that caused a change in the population.

During a "controlled" experiment, the researcher will separate the sample population into groups with one group established as the control group. All groups will be manipulated in some manner, except for the control group which will remain the same.
An example of an experimental study:
Does the color of a basketball influence the number of times a shooter sinks a basket? A random group of students is chosen and asked to shoot a series of baskets using a regulation normal-colored basketball. The data is recorded. The same group is then given a blue colored basketball and the same number of shots is repeated. The data is again recorded. A statistical analysis is performed. This is a designed experimental study since the researcher manipulated the conditions of the study by changing the color of the ball.
Comparison of Observational Study and Designed Experimental Study:
Observational Study Designed Experiment
• Observe only, no "treatment" assigned
• Generally a control group is not needed
• Reports an association
• May (or not) use random sample sets
• May (or not) generalize to population • "Treatment" assigned
• Uses control group for comparison
• Reports a cause and effect
• Randomization of sample group
• Generalize to population

Observation is a systematic data collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations. Observation of a field setting involves: prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation.
Observational research (or field research) is a type of correlational (i.e., non-experimental) research in which a researcher observes ongoing behavior. There are a variety of types of observational research, each of which has both strengths and weaknesses. These types are organized below by the extent to which an experimenter intrudes upon or controls the environment.
Observational research is particularly prevalent in the social sciences and in marketing. It is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experiment. It is typically divided into naturalistic (or “nonparticipant”) observation, and participant observation. Cases studies and archival research are special types of observational research. Naturalistic (or nonparticipant) observation has no intervention by a researcher. It is simply studying behaviors that occur naturally in natural contexts, unlike the artificial environment of a controlled laboratory setting. Importantly, in naturalistic observation, there is no attempt to manipulate variables. It permits measuring what behavior is really like. However, its typical limitations consist in its incapability exploring the actual causes of behaviors, and the impossibility to determine if a given observation is truly representative of what normally occurs. In participant observation, the researcher intervenes in the environment. Most commonly, this refers to inserting himself/herself as a member of a group, aimed at observing behavior that otherwise would not be accessible. Also, behaviors remain relatively natural, thereby giving the measurements high external validity. Case Studies are a type of observational research that involves a thorough descriptive analysis of a single individual, group, or event. They can be designed along the lines of both nonparticipant and participant observation. Both approaches create new data, while archival research involves the analysis of data that already exist. A hypothesis is generated and then tested by analyzing data that have already been collected. This is a useful approach when one has access to large amounts of information collected over long periods of time. Such databases are available, for example, in longitudinal research that collects information from the same individuals over many years.

Pros:
• Observation can help round out research by offering a real-world aspect to a hypothesis. It offers a better description of consumer behavior and is less hypothetical than other methods.
• Observation allows you to see how consumers act together and separately. Do purchasing decisions change in a group setting? Do consumers act differently when by themselves?
• Observation allows you to create and observe actual situations. Instead of using data to try and predict what will happen when consumers pass a large product display, observation validates with actual results.
• Observation can improve the quality of an initial behavioral analysis based on demographics, therefore increasing the validity of research.
• This technique is ideal for situations in which nonverbal communication is important for a complete consumer profile.
• Observation provides a more reliable measurement of actual consumer behavior, rather than self-report metrics.
Cons:
• Observation research can include a high degree of researcher bias. Because the observer is human, subconscious opinions on demographics can affect the analysis.
• The method also relies on the interpretation of observation. And, since the market researcher cannot “see” attitudes and memories, it can be difficult to create an accurate analysis from observation alone.
• Observation research doesn’t always return an accurate demographic sample. It’s much smaller, and relies heavily on chance. Researchers are sometimes left at the mercy of whoever came into a store that day, whether or not it lines up with desired consumer profiles.
• Observation only tells one part of the story. Attitudes and opinions cannot be clearly expressed only through actions, so it may not be the clearest picture possible.
As with most research methods, observational research works best in tandem with other methods. A focus group, for instance, could outline thoughts and opinions, while observation showcases actual behavior in real-life situations. Either way, any decent market research report will be filled out by a responsible researcher who knows how to engineer both so that decisions are accurately predicted time and time again.

1.9 Reasons for Advocating References
Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers and researcher in your work. Any university assignments that draw on the ideas, words or research of other writers must contain citations.
Referencing is also a way to give credit to the writers from whom you have borrowed words and ideas. By citing the work of a particular scholar you acknowledge and respect the intellectual property rights of that researcher. As a student (or an academic) you can draw on any of the millions of ideas, insights and arguments published by other writers, many of whom have spent years researching and writing. All you need to do is acknowledge their contribution to your assignment.
Referencing is a way to provide evidence to support the assertions and claims in your own assignments. By citing experts in your field, you are showing your marker that you are aware of the field in which you are operating. Your citations map the space of your discipline, and allow you to navigate your way through your chosen field of study, in the same way that sailors steer by the stars.
References should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the sources of information you have used. The best way to make sure you reference accurately is to keep a record of all the sources you used when reading and researching for an assignment.
Citations also make your writing more persuasive.

2.0 References
Alvin and Ronald (2003). Research design
Chen and Hirschheim (2004). Different between quantitative and qualitative researches
Campbell and Fiske (1959). Triangulation
Colorado State University (2016). Disadvantages of Qualitative Observational Research
Green and Tull (1978) conceptual definition of research
Given and Lisa (2008). Qualitative research
Kerlinger (1986). Definition of research
Leinhardt (1980). Research design
Malek and Massoud (2011). Different research objectives
Merriam (2002). Data collection
Universaltecher.com (2017). Types of research


..........................................................................................................................................................

Hi there, I’m Kingsley, Kingsmond Ehimare (Dip., B.Sc., M.Sc., AHR.) Business-strategic Psychologist, Business cognitive Coach.
...........................................................................................................................................................
Ps: Please feel free to contact me on kingsmond.com1@gmail.com; instagram:kcmond & twitter:@kingsmond.com


https://web.facebook.com/kingsmond/
http://twitter.com/kingsmond_com