₦airaland Forum

Young03:
To me, i like readin in d day tym even if their z noise, i wudnt affect me....cant shorten my sleep cus i want to read @ 9t

have you once tried reading at night, and experiencing your rate of comprehension compared to when you read in the day?

Young03:
To me, i like readin in d day tym even if their z noise, i wudnt affect me....cant shorten my sleep cus i want to read @ 9t

have you once tried reading in the night, and experiencing your rate of comprehension compared to when you read in the day?

Today our class was divided into two opinions on the topic "the best time to study"

While some of us said "The best time to comprehend what you read is at night. To them ,The Best ideas , are gotten at night when every where is quiet and tranquil."

Others Argued that "The Best time to study should be defined according to the choice and convenience of the individual. That is "if you're most comfortable studying during the day, that should be your best time."
This group also argues that the night is designated for rest by nature.


So the Question is thrown to the House, Is Night Really the Best time to study?? Pls express your opinions , thanks.

The Concept of underdervelopment.

Our knowledge of development and what constitutes it as presented by two schools of thought reviewed above will facilitate our understanding of the concept , underdervelopment. The term underdervelopment as used in the social sciences to refer to certain areas of the world, gained currency in the late 1940's . Prior to this time; time , other derogatory terms had been used to qualify and describe these areas. As Meier has noted , in the 18th century, such terms as "rude" and "barbarous" were used to describe countries in asia , Africa , the Caribbean and Latin America. In the 19th century those terms were dropped in favour of new terms such as backward" and primitive" . In the 20th century, especially after the end of world war II , the previous terms were equally abandoned . In their places new terms such as "underdeveloped" and "developing" were used.

At the moment it has been suggested in some quarters that such terms as "less developed" "developing" "poor" and "emergent" countries should be used instead of underdeveloped countries. The reason any unpleasantness which may be attached to it" and which might be interpreted as inciting such physical deformities as mental and moral underdervelopment.
It has also been suggested that the previous derogatory terms should be dropped in favour of less offensive or mild ones such as "developing" or "emergent". This is perceived by Marxist scholars as a calculated design or ploy by the west to mask and or camouflage economic stagnation and exploitation that exist in underdeveloped areas.


It is contended. For instance, that the application of such terms as "developing" instead of "underdeveloped" gives an erroneous impression that these countries are changing positively and thus are developing ; and that if the right policies are implemented, sooner or later these countries will definitely catch up with the developed countries of the world. In view of this assumption, the marxist theorists prefer to use the term "underdevelopement" to describe the less developed parts of the world . The reason For this is that the term "underdevelopement" is believed to be the best concept that can aptly describe the state of stagnation and exploitation that is prevalent in these societies. let us now examine the meaning of the concept , underdervelopment.

Underdevelopement : The Liberal Perspective.

The Liberal scholars conceive of underdevelopement in terms of backwardness and primitivity. This explains why it is common for them to use such terms as "agrarian" and "pre-industrial" to imply underdevelopement is not caused by any external factors but rather is induced by internal variables.
Relating to the above is the alternative explanation which is equally offered to support the view that underdervelopment are natural processes ordained by God. It is contended that the developed parts of the world have been endowed by God with wisdom and high intelligence quotient, This explains why they are superior and advanced On the other hand , the same God is said to have created the Underdeveloped societies differently, He makes them to be culturally and psychologically inferior which is said to be responsible for their state of backwardness.


It is important to state that even though the Bourgeois scholars are agreed on the fact that underdevelopement is caused by natural and internal forces, there is no agreement with respect to which internal variables actually bring it about . According to Ragnar Nurke, In his work, Problems of capital accumulation in poor countries.
A country is backward and poor because it is Poor.
This Represents a vicious circle of poverty that "runs from low income to low savings to low investment to low productivity and then back to low real income." In his own, contribution. (Richard easterlin) Attributed underdevelopement to the Climate , over population and lack of motivation on the part of the population.
Other scholars still blame the situation on racial grounds. Peasant conservatism, strong attachment to tribal customs such as extended family and land-tenure system.
In view of the fact that bOurgeois scholars attribute underdervelopment to internal factors, this has influenced how they define it. According to them , it can be defined as a natural state of social psychological , political and economic backwardness occasioned by natural and internal milieu. This Definition leads the liberal scholars to postulate that the way out of backwardness is through moderniZation. That is "Europeanization" or "americanization" of the Traditional sectors of the economy in order to stimulate growth and progress.

Underdevelopement - the marxist Perspective.
To the Radical Scholars , it is untrue that underdevelopement connotes backwardness , primitivity or lack of development. This is "because every people have developed in one way or the other and to a greater of lesser extent". Equally untrue is the assertion that it is a natural process. To the radical Scholars then , underdevelopement is a man -made process and a manifestation of the long period of economic and political relationships between these countries and advanced industrialized parts of the world.

Quite unlike the bourgeois scholars who claim that capitalism played no part in the creation of underdevelopement but natural and internal forces , the radical scholars think differently. The Thesis of dependency theorists is that underdevelopement is caused by capitalism . This Position has been supported not only empirically but by logical and factual presentation of concrete evidence. For instance , while supporting the view that underdevelopement is caused by the interplay between internal and external structures, Gunder Frank asserts that:
"Underdevelopement is not simply non-development, but is a unique type of socioeconomic structure brought about by the integration of the society concerned into the sphere of the advanced capitalist countries"

It is the view of the radical scholars that it is the same process that fosters development in the industrialized parts of the world which foils development and generates underdervelopment in the third world countries. Put in another way, the integration of third world countries. Put in another way , the integration of third world countries into the mainstream of world capitalism has enhanced the rate of development in the first world and at the same time led to underdevelopement in the third world. This position has been beautifully articulated by Osvaldo Sunkel when he observes

"We postulate that development and underdevelopement are the two faces of the same universal process... And that its geographic expression is translated into two polarizations: on the one hand the polarizations of the world between, industrial , advanced , developed and metropolitan countries , and underdeveloped, backward,poor , peripheral and dependent countries in terms of space , backward,primitive within countries in terms of space , Backward , primitive , marginal and dependent groups and activities."

Similar views have been expressed by other eminent scholars of the Marxist Persuasion. The Most forceful among them are (Jaguaribe, Celso, Rodney, Frank, Dos Santos and Cohen)
Have argued though with different emphasis that foreign penetration is the cause of underdevelopement.
Arising from This premise , they contend that underdevelopement is the state of backwardness , retardation and economic Distortion, caused bt the exploitation and plunder of the economics of developing areas as a result of their integration into world Capitalism. This Perception of underdervelopment has led Rodney to assert that:
"A second and even more indispensable component Of modern underdevelopement is that if expresses a particular relationship of exploitation: namely , exploitation of one country by another. All of the countries named "underdeveloped" are exploited by others and underdevelopement with which the world is now pre-occupied is a product of capitalism."

From our discussion so far on the concept of underdervelopment have seen that the terms has been used and defined differently by both the liberal and radical scholars . The way these schools defined it is apparently influenced by what they think causes undevelopment. While the liberal views on underdervelopment is that it is an artificial process caused by the exploitation of country by another. Our kNowledge of underdevelopement should place us in vantage pedestal To understand the concept of "Third World".

The Concept of Third World.
The Term "third world" as used in the lexicon of political science is indicative that there exists the "first", "second " "third" perhaps The "forth" worlds. Of course , there exists such worlds if the term "world" is used to explain the level of economic advancement as well as industrialization that exist in different parts of the world. But the application of such terms as "highly Developed" and "highly industrialized" to describe economic giants in western Europe, Japan and America on the one hand and the use of "developed" and industrialized" to refer to Russia, China, Poland , Yugoslavia, (etc) On the other , has eclipsed the application of First and second worlds."

It has been argued that the use of the term "third world" to describe the afro-asian and Latin American Group of independent countries is inappropriate. This is because the level of economic and industrial development in these countries are not at the same pace.
In reality some of them are so poor and can readily fit into what Franrz Fanon calls "the Wretched of the Earth". At the same time some of them have witnessed relative level of economic and industrial growth. Given the fact that the rate of industrialization in the third world countries is not uniform, and in view of the fact that some countries like Nigeria, Brazil , the Republic of south Africa, Egypt , taiwan and South Korea are making more progress than Chad , Burkina Faso, Niger, mali , Central African republic (etc) it is , Suggested that a review of the states lumped as "third world" countries is imperative . Accordingly , it has been strongly advocated that all the least developed countries should be classified as the fourth World. At the same time , those Group of States that show feasible sign of Economic growth and industrialization should retain the tag "third World".

The Alternative view is that countries within the third world who are making substantial progress in terms of industrialization, growth , science, equitable distribution of income and high per capita income , should be termed "emergent". Or developing" countries. the rest should remain in the Third World Orbit. The above observations notwithstanding, we will proceed to examine the concept of the third world both in the liberal as well as Marxist Conceptualizations.
The term "third world". As used by the bourgeois/liberal theorists refers to underdeveloped as well as developing countries in asia . Africa, latin america and the Caribbean whose economics are generally characterized by extremely low standard of living . It also refers to those countries that are still grappling with the problems of development after independence has been achieved.

Third World: marxist perspective

The radical scholars see no wisdom in the division of the globe into groups of countries based on economic potentials as well as development attainment. This explains why they condemn such a stance as being immoral and derogatory.
In marxist perception, labeling such as "emergent" , "developing" "third " , and "fourth" imply the same thing. They all represent those countries on the surface of the earth that have been exploited by the americans and europeans. Rodney sums up this point when he says that: "All countries named as underdeveloped" in the world are exploited by others..."Rodney . Thus instead of using the term , "third world" , radical scholars prefer the use of such terms as "satellite" and "periphery" to describe the exploited societies. This is to say that, the term "third world" is for the bourgeois scholars what "satellite" or "periphery" is to the radical scholars.

Major Characteristics of third world Countries.

The major Distinguishing features of the third
world countries as noted by dankwart A. Rustow are:
-a) Hugh Birth Rates
-b) Poor Communication Network;
-c) Meager Rate of Capital Formation;
-d) Low rate of industrial Development and
-e) Preponderance of mining over industry and service trade

In view of (F. Sauvy) , the Underlying features of this group are:
1. Short Life expectancy:
2. High Birth rate
3. Malnutrition
4. Meager Capital supply and unemployment:
4. Meager Capital supply and unemployment:
5. High illiteracy Rate
6. Low status for women
7. Dominance of agricultural sector
8. Rudimentary Middle Class and
9. Political Authoritarianism.

F.X Sutton has provided more concrete features of the third world countries . He uses purely political /social matrix to characterize them as follows:

-i ) predominance of ascriptive, particuliaristic , diffuse patterns;

-ii) Stable local groups and limited spatial mobility;

-iii) relative simple and stable "occupational" differentiation and

-iv) "differential" Stratification system of diffused impact.

Another important feature that gives a useful insight into what constitute third world countries related to food intake in these societies. In the "advanced" societies each individual takes at least 3,000 calories of food per day whereas in third world countries , citizens consume below 1,200 calories each day. In addition, citizens of this part of the earth suffer from "protein famine" as a Result of consumption of greater percentage of carbohydrate at the expense of proteinous foods.
The above distinguishing features of third world countries should not be used to draw a conclusion that all the citizens in these areas are not poor. The true position remains that in most of the Third World countries , urban centers that exhibit modern features exist side by side with isolated communities that are backward and poor. The crucial determinant whether or not a country belongs to the fold of the third world is the extent to which the identified features exist .

Reference:

O.O Okereke & A.E Ekpe -2002
Development and underdevelopment: politics of the north-south divide

Thus , at the individual level, development is defined as the interplay between man and nature in the process of production of material needs, at the social group . In addition , it implies the ability of members of the social group. In addition, it implies the ability of members of the society to concertedly deal with their environment . And this directly depends upon the extent to which they understand the laws of nature (science) , on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools (technology) , and on the manner by which work is organized.

In consonance with this view , development is used to imply the ability by the collectivity of individuals to organize themselves with a view. To eking out , a living from nature. Historically, this has manifested itself in various forms. Firstly , by the evolutionary progress From crude stone tools to the application of metals. The Change over from the hunting and gathering of wild fruits to the domestication of animals and cultivation of crops was the second manifestation. The third form presented itself by the improvement in the manner social work organized "from being an individualistic activity which assumes a social character through the participation of many.

The third conception of development by the marxist scholars organically ties development to socialist mode of production. The thinking here is that capitalist mode of production is an impediment to development and people's well-being . It breeds inequality , exploitation and crises. Therefore, socialism is seen as the only method of bringing about development "that can duly ease the lives of working people and improve their well-being as much as possible."

But at what juncture does capitalism give way to socialism? What are the peculiar features of capitalism that inhibit development? What is socialist mode of production? And how is it relevant and suitable to development ? These and other questions will be answered by examining development in the context of socialism. Radical scholars maintain that capitalism is anti-development.
This is so because of numerous contradictions that are associated with it. It is contended that when the economic system is based upon private ownership, individual initiative , profit and competition," a number of features that thwart development are bound to arise. According to (Williams A. McClelland) some of these features are:

-a) the means by which goods are produced are held as private property by individuals or companies formed, owned and controlled by one , a few or many individuals;

-b) the owners of means of production hire labour and compete with one another to produce goods and services at a profit and

-c) competition is the life-blood of this system.

A superficial view of the basic traits of capitalism indicates that it is innocuous to development. But (karl marx) in his path - breaking work, capital , has scientifically examined its specific features, concrete forms and peculiarities of its manifestations. This led him to conclude that capitalism is an evil. This position has been supported by all radical scholars. For instance (Professor M.K Bunkina) has advanced the following points to demonstrate that capitalism impairs development efforts;

-i) under capitalism , production relations between the working class and bourgeoisie assume the form of commodity relations and thus leading to exploitation of the former;

-ii) capitalism creates anarchy and bitter rivalry thus leading to uneven development of individual enterprises ; and bitter rivalry in turn unavoidably generates the rise of monopoly and exploitation.

Other marxist scholars such as Lenin, Frank , Rodney , Toyo, Nkrumah and Kay, just to mention a few of them, have similarly attacked capitalism and imperialism as Being incapable of generating development . For instance, while Lenin Talks of wars , crisis and among the capitalist-power, " Nkrumah maintains that foreign capital is used for exploitation rather than development of less developed parts of the world.

In his own critique, Rodney neatly sums up the reasons why capitalism is not a panacea to the problems of underdervelopment and why socialism is therefore imperative. According to him:

" Capitalism has proved incapable of transcending fundamental weakness such as under -utilization of productive capacity , the persistence of a permanent sector of unemployed , and periodic economic crisis..... Capitalism has created its own irrationalities such as a vicious white racism, the tremendous waste associated with advertising , and their rationality of incredible poverty in the midst of wealth and wastage."

In view of the critical examination of the bad effects of capitalism vis-a-vis development, Rodney concludes that it Is no longer effective in promoting development but rather acts as brakes.

Isotaori Mesxaros seems to strike a similar tune when he notes that, the structural antagonism inherent in capitalism makes the system to remain Always unreformable and uncontrollable.
As a result of the Numerous problems Associated with capitalism , it is contended that development only comes about through socialism. This system marks the threshold of true human Freedom and the end of human suffering , exploitation , alienation and class depredations.
Given the fact that socialist mode of production is perceived as development ,it is necessary to examine what it is: and how it is a form of development.
As noted by onimode , the socialist mode of production is characterized by the public ownership and control of the means of production as well as social appropriation of surplus. According to Marx and engels , this mode of production makes it possible for " the free development of each to be condition for the development of all"
Socialist mode of production is based on a number of socialist oriented laws. These laws when applied , "in economic and administrative management", exert profound impact on the various sectors of production. This , Consciousness of these laws is considered as a sine qua non for development and social transformation. It is also contended that, a sound knowledge and application of the Imperatives of socialist laws, helps to lay bare the main objective of socialist enterprise. This in turn improves relations of production. But when they are ignored, (Kuznetsov) says, "disproportions results and a drag is exerted on the development of various. Sectors of production".
Some of these laws which are relevant to development are the laws of proportional and balanced development of the economy.
This is one of the most crucial factors that enhances rapid development. The Reason Is because it leads to the implementation of planned programmes of development in areas of crucial Needs. The next is law of comradely co-operation and mutual assistance in production process. This law eliminates competition, conflict and labour unrests that characterize the capitalist mode of production.

In addition , since the objective of socialism is to control production in the interest of the workers, they "now become the most dynamic force" in development process. Finally, the law of socialists production gears production toward raising people's well-being and endangers development".

To marxists, Irrespective of the angle one looks at the development,it is indeed synonymous with socialist mode of production. All other modes of production that preceded it are seen to have been transient. That is to say, they were temporary and had to pave way to socialism.
From our analysis of both the liberal and marxist perceptions of development it is clear that development is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in structures , attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth and eradication of poverty. In consonance with the multi-dimensional nature of development, (Dudley Seers) has posed basic questions whose answers could unveil the meaning of development. He posited that:

"The questions to ask about a country's development are therefore ; what has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to equality? If all three of these have declined from high levels , then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned . If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result "development " even if per capita income doubled."

In order to grasp the fundamental of development , it is perhaps instructive to follow the footsteps of dennis Goulet whose basic components or core values of development, "serve as a conceptual basis and practical guidelines for understanding the inner meaning of development" according to Goulet, the basic components or core value of development are life-sustenance, self-esteem and freedom, these represent common goals sought by all individuals and societies.

Life sustenance refers and relates to the provision of basic human needs such as qualitative food, education, housing and clothing.
Thus one of the goals of development should be "to raise people out of poverty and to provide basic needs at the same time"

Self. Esteem is Concerned with independence and self-respect. No country ,which is exploited and is heavily dependent on another for basic human needs and industralization , can claim to be developed . Third world countries seek development so as to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful underdervelopment".

Freedom as the third core-value of development implies freedom from "want , ignorance and squalor " A scholar like (W. Arthur Lewis) has noted that has noted that there is a significant relationship between economic growth and development when he observed that "the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human Choices".

Using goulet's concept of development , therefore , development implies a situation where " there has been improvement in the basic needs, when economic progress has contributed to a greater sense of self-esteem for the country and individuals within it , and when material advancement has expanded the range of choice for individuals"
From our angle , a more fruitful approach to the definition of development ought to follow the marxist tradition as well as goulet's conception and thus take into account not only economic and political factors alone, but also social indicators as well. In specific terms, such an approach should see development as "people inspired ,human centered and citiZen anchored". In other words people should be seen as the agent of change and development , and development should directly affect the quality of life and well-being of mankind.
From this standpoint , development as will be used in this literature implies the qualitative and quantitative change not only in the Standard of living of the members of the society. But also. The transformation of the society, in all its ramifications. Thus , the availability of such development indicators as high literacy rate, good road network, constant supply of electricity , improved medical facilities , decent housing as well as equitable distribution of income are indicative of a developed society and is a manifestation of the will and capacity to induce social change by the use of labour power and available resources to improve the living standard of the citizens.

nicklaus40:
u wlcm....undeveloped is lack of development, it is like d first stage of development and it is believed every country either developed or underdeveloped av bin at dis level at a particular time,underdeveloped is nt lack of development buh a process in attaining development,a country may be developed politically buh may be underdeveloped economically and dis is underdevelopment, for a country to be regarded as developed it must be socially,economically and politically developed,wen a country lacks d 4 den dat is undeveloped buh wen a country has at least one dat is underdevelopment, undevelopment is d first stage of development buh I don't tink an undeveloped state still exist buh dia are many underdeveloped states...Underdeveloped,less developed and developing are d same thing,just dat diff scholars use dem aw dey feel,d word underdeveloped lacks moral standard while less develop also discourages d 3rd world,developing gvs unnecessary hope because a country whose development has stalled hears ppl calling it developing would gv unnecessary hope,dis 3 words can be used interchangeably so it is best to call d less developed,developing nd underdeveloped countries 3rd world,i hope u understand my point here

thanks sir, this really went a long way. I'm interested to know on which divide you belong as regards the radical and Bourgeois schools of thought.

nicklaus40:
modernization theory is a theory based on d ideologies of the west(developed European countries) they bliv that for less developed countries to attain development they must imbibe the cultures of the west i.e they must be like d west... they bliv d ldc should embrace capitalism and spread it and by doing so dey wld be developed, ww rostow explained dat development involves 5 stages wich are traditional stage,transitional stage, take off stage,drive to maturity stage nd high consumption stage,he blivs d developed countries esp US av gobe thru this stage and dat is why dey are developed and for LDCs to attain development dey must go thru dia stages(from traditional to modern stage)..... the dependency theorists on d oda hand are scholars frm d LDCs and dey claim dat underdevelopment in d 3rd world today is as a result of imperialism,colonialism nd neo colonialism,dey also believe capitalism is used by d developed countries to exploit d LDCs and globalisation is a tool dey use to achieve their aim of exploitation,so for LDCs to attain development dey must av nothing to do with d developed countries i.e total 'delink' from the developed countries so as nt to be exploited further, I hope dis will help

Right now I wish there was a word more greater than thank you. You've really impacted in me in this regard. Thanks a lot. Pls do well to share and explain other perceptions as well as theories you might know regarding this topic. That reminds me, I am to write on (Conceptual Issues

A) undeveloped
B) Underdeveloped
C)Developing
D) Less Developed
E) Development)
Pls Kindly offer me a summary in your perspective.

In his conclusion , kay contends that since development is dependent on human labour , as can be proven when a product as a natural object is transformed by human labour so that is satisfies human need, development should center around human beings.

Contd...

Thus , at the individual level, development is defined as the interplay between man and nature in the process of production of material needs, at the social group . In addition , it implies the ability of members of the social group. In addition, it implies the ability of members of the society to concertedly deal with their environment . And this directly depends upon the extent to which they understand the laws of nature (science) , on the extent to which they put that understanding into practice by devising tools (technology) , and on the manner by which work is organized.

In consonance with this view , development is used to imply the ability by the collectivity of individuals to organize themselves with a view. To eking out , a living from nature. Historically, this has manifested itself in various forms. Firstly , by the evolutionary progress From crude stone tools to the application of metals. The Change over from the hunting and gathering of wild fruits to the domestication of animals and cultivation of crops was the second manifestation. The third form presented itself by the improvement in the manner social work organized "from being an individualistic activity which assumes a social character through the participation of many.

The third conception of development by the marxist scholars organically ties development to socialist mode of production. The thinking here is that capitalist mode of production is an impediment to development and people's well-being . It breeds inequality , exploitation and crises. Therefore, socialism is seen as the only method of bringing about development "that can duly ease the lives of working people and improve their well-being as much as possible."

But at what juncture does capitalism give way to socialism? What are the peculiar features of capitalism that inhibit development? What is socialist mode of production? And how is it relevant and suitable to development ? These and other questions will be answered by examining development in the context of socialism. Radical scholars maintain that capitalism is anti-development.
This is so because of numerous contradictions that are associated with it. It is contended that when the economic system is based upon private ownership, individual initiative , profit and competition," a number of features that thwart development are bound to arise. According to (Williams A. McClenghan) some of these features are:

-a) the means by which goods are produced are held as private property by individuals or companies formed, owned and controlled by one , a few or many individuals;

-b) the owners of means of production hire labour and compete with one another to produce goods and services at a profit and

-c) competition is the life-blood of this system.

A superficial view of the basic traits of capitalism indicates that it is innocuous to development. But (karl marx) in his path - breaking work, capital , has scientifically examined its specific features, concrete forms and peculiarities of its manifestations. This led him to conclude that capitalism is an evil. This position has been supported by all radical scholars. For instance (Professor M.K Bunkina) has advanced the following points to demonstrate that capitalism impairs development efforts;

-i) under capitalism , production relations between the working class and bourgeoisie assume the form of commodity relations and thus leading to exploitation of the former;

-ii) capitalism creates anarchy and bitter rivalry thus leading to uneven development of individual enterprises ; and bitter rivalry in turn unavoidably generates the rise of monopoly and exploitation.

Other marxist scholars such as Lenin, Frank , Rodney , Toyo, Nkrumah and Kay, just to mention a few of them, have similarly attacked capitalism and imperialism as Being incapable of generating development . For instance, while Lenin Talks of wars , crisis and among the capitalist-power, " Nkrumah maintains that foreign capital is used for exploitation rather than development of less developed parts of the world.

In his own critique, Rodney neatly sums up the reasons why capitalism is not a panacea to the problems of underdervelopment and why socialism is therefore imperative. According to him:

" Capitalism has proved incapable of transcending fundamental weakness such as under -utilization of productive capacity , the persistence of a permanent sector of unemployed , and periodic economic crisis..... Capitalism has created its own irrationalities such as a vicious white racism, the tremendous waste associated with advertising , and their rationality of incredible poverty in the midst of wealth and wastage."

In view of the critical examination of the bad effects of capitalism vis-a-vis development, Rodney concludes that it Is no longer effective in promoting development but rather acts as brakes.

Isotaori Mesxaros seems to strike a similar tune when he notes that, the structural antagonism inherent in capitalism makes the system to remain Always unreformable and uncontrollable.
As a result of the Numerous problems Associated with capitalism , it is contended that development only comes about through socialism. This system marks the threshold of true human Freedom and the end of human suffering , exploitation , alienation and class depredations.
Given the fact that socialist mode of production is perceived as development ,it is necessary to examine what it is: and how it is a form of development.
As noted by onimode , the socialist mode of production is characterized by the public ownership and control of the means of production as well as social appropriation of surplus. According to Marx and engels , this mode of production makes it possible for " the free development of each to be condition for the development of all"
Socialist mode of production is based on a number of socialist oriented laws. These laws when applied , "in economic and administrative management", exert profound impact on the various sectors of production. This , Consciousness of these laws is considered as a sine qua non for development and social transformation. It is also contended that, a sound knowledge and application of the Imperatives of socialist laws, helps to lay bare the main objective of socialist enterprise. This in turn improves relations of production. But when they are ignored, (Kuznetsov) says, "disproportions results and a drag is exerted on the development of various. Sectors of production".
Some of these laws which are relevant to development are the laws of proportional and balanced development of the economy.
This is one of the most crucial factors that enhances rapid development. The Reason Is because it leads to the implementation of planned programmes of development in areas of crucial Needs. The next is law of comradely co-operation and mutual assistance in production process. This law eliminates competition, conflict and labour unrests that characterize the capitalist mode of production.

In addition , since the objective of socialism is to control production in the interest of the workers, they "now become the most dynamic force" in development process. Finally, the law of socialists production gears production toward raising people's well-being and endangers development".

To marxists, Irrespective of the angle one looks at the development,it is indeed synonymous with socialist mode of production. All other modes of production that preceded it are seen to have been transient. That is to say, they were temporary and had to pave way to socialism.
From our analysis of both the liberal and marxist perceptions of development it is clear that development is a multi-dimensional process involving changes in structures , attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth and eradication of poverty. In consonance with the multi-dimensional nature of development, (Dudley Seers) has posed basic questions whose answers could unveil the meaning of development. He posited that:

"The questions to ask about a country's development are therefore ; what has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to equality? If all three of these have declined from high levels , then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned . If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result "development " even if per capita income doubled."

In order to grasp the fundamental of development , it is perhaps instructive to follow the footsteps of dennis Goulet whose basic components or core values of development, "serve as a conceptual basis and practical guidelines for understanding the inner meaning of development" according to Goulet, the basic components or core value of development are life-sustenance, self-esteem and freedom, these represent common goals sought by all individuals and societies.

Life sustenance refers and relates to the provision of basic human needs such as qualitative food, education, housing and clothing.
Thus one of the goals of development should be "to raise people out of poverty and to provide basic needs at the same time"

Self. Esteem is Concerned with independence and self-respect. No country ,which is exploited and is heavily dependent on another for basic human needs and industralization , can claim to be developed . Third world countries seek development so as to gain the esteem which is denied to societies living in a state of disgraceful underdervelopment".

Freedom as the third core-value of development implies freedom from "want , ignorance and squalor " A scholar like (W. Arthur Lewis) has noted that has noted that there is a significant relationship between economic growth and development when he observed that "the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human Choices".

Using goulet's concept of development , therefore , development implies a situation where " there has been improvement in the basic needs, when economic progress has contributed to a greater sense of self-esteem for the country and individuals within it , and when material advancement has expanded the range of choice for individuals"
From our angle , a more fruitful approach to the definition of development ought to follow the marxist tradition as well as goulet's conception and thus take into account not only economic and political factors alone, but also social indicators as well. In specific terms, such an approach should see development as "people inspired ,human centered and citiZen anchored". In other words people should be seen as the agent of change and development , and development should directly affect the quality of life and well-being of mankind.
From this standpoint , development as will be used in this literature implies the qualitative and quantitative change not only in the Standard of living of the members of the society. But also. The transformation of the society, in all its ramifications. Thus , the availability of such development indicators as high literacy rate, good road network, constant supply of electricity , improved medical facilities , decent housing as well as equitable distribution of income are indicative of a developed society and is a manifestation of the will and capacity to induce social change by the use of labour power and available resources to improve the living standard of the citizens.

The Concept of underdervelopment.

Our knowledge of development and what constitutes it as presented by two schools of thought reviewed above will facilitate our understanding of the concept , underdervelopment. The term underdervelopment as used in the social sciences to refer to certain areas of the world, gained currency in the late 1940's . Prior to this time; time , other derogatory terms had been used to qualify and describe these areas. As Meier has noted , in the 18th century, such terms as "rude" and "barbarous" were used to describe countries in asia , Africa , the Caribbean and Latin America. In the 19th century those terms were dropped in favour of new terms such as backward" and primitive" . In the 20th century, especially after the end of world war II , the previous terms were equally abandoned . In their places new terms such as "underdeveloped" and "developing" were used.

At the moment it has been suggested in some quarters that such terms as "less developed" "developing" "poor" and "emergent" countries should be used instead of underdeveloped countries. The reason any unpleasantness which may be attached to it" and which might be interpreted as inciting such physical deformities as mental and moral underdervelopment.
It has also been suggested that the previous derogatory terms should be dropped in favour of less offensive or mild ones such as "developing" or "emergent". This is perceived by Marxist scholars as a calculated design or ploy by the west to mask and or camouflage economic stagnation and exploitation that exist in underdeveloped areas.

nicklaus40:
We can also use theories to explain development and underdevelopment such as modernization theory and dependency theory

thank you very much, this is exactly what I want. If it's possible please explain further.

otil1:
Nice writeup. Pls wots ur source so that I can continue reading.

I am a student of development and I love to read about the different development paradigms

Brother I'm a political science student as well and that stuff you see was hand-typed from some of my notes and a handout particularly (O . Okereke 2002. Development and underdevelopment: politics of the north-south divide). And I intend to continue filling in from time to time .

What happened is that I'm hopelessly addicted to nairaland so much that I spend more time here than on my books, so I thought since I'm to typing, what usain bolt is to racing,(I write notes in class on my blackberry handheld, its faster for me , as fast as following a moderately-fast talking man word for word ). So I decided I should get my books and notes
in here and create a bookmark on my browser for easy access to my pages. So while I'm doing what I love best "surfing nairaland" I'd have the pleasure of reading my notes here as well and so far so good I think the signs show that it'll work, funny enough I can already see a nairalander booking a large space on my thread lol, I can see this whole thing has the potentials of adding that typical nairaland feel to my reading. I can tell its going to be fun at the long run, moreso with intellectuals like you following and contributing as well.

so just follow, and please feel free to make your contributions as well. Thanks bro. And as for dhorlipizzu booking a large space, your space is well secured o. Welldone bro .lmao

The Emergence of radical or marxist-oriented paradigm to the study of development and underdevelopement has precipitated a kind of intellectual revolution , which has made a mark in the Landscape of political Economy, firstly , this recrudescence has forced bourgeois scholars , for the first time to take into account the non-economic factors In their analysis of development and underdervelopment . Secondly and most importantly , one of the basic consequences of the marxist theoretical and methodological engineering in the field has been the saturation of the area with a plethora of concepts. The Existence of plurality of concepts in the field has resulted in what (Ian Roxborough) calls the 'jargon' with attendant confusion and contradiction in their usage. This is so because the Bourgeois notion of economic concepts are fixed , universal and therefore abstract , while those of the marxist scholars , as observed by Eskor Toyo derive from, "historical materialist method as well as logical analysis" thus the content of the categories as defined by them is bound to differ even "though these categories bear the same names in their appearance."

Given this difference , attempt is made in this book to define major concepts to reflect the thinking of both schools of thought; and to familiarize readers with their strands of arguments.

The Concept of Development.

The term "development" as used in contemporary social science literature is not only vague and nebulous , but is also polemical.

Using concepts such as 'growth', change, and in some instances "industrialization" interchangeably with development, tends to complicate the problem of arriving at a universally acceptable definition for the term.
Besides the disputations by radical scholars of the various liberal theorizing have complicated the problem more and more. This in part explains why (Meier) observes that it is difficult to advance one precise meaning for the term "development" and perhaps easier to say what development is not than what it is.

Development: The Liberal Perspective.
Development in the Liberal Perspective has been variously defined. In its elementary form the term is inextricably tied to The economic domain. Most Liberal theorists see it as economic development. Which could be gauged in terms of growth of the Gross National Products (GNP). Accordingly , development is defined as "the maximization and industrialization" in this context , development implies change which "often follows a well-ordered sequence and exhibits common characteristics across countries " or what (micheal todaro) calls , "a series of successive stages of transformation"
Thus , for most liberal scholars , development means "the capacity of a national economy Whose initial economic condition has been more of less static to generate and sustain an annual increase in its gross national Product(GNP) at rates of perhaps 5 to 7percent or more"

The above conception of development represents the dominant bourgeois/capitalist thinking of the 1950s and 1960's . The Failure of most third world countries to overcome the perennial problem of poverty regardless of bold attempt at industrialization brought to a proper focus the futility of forging ahead through the pursuance of economic growth . (Mahbuhul Hag of pakistan) seems to speak for all underdeveloping countries when he lamented thus : "we were taught to take care of our GNP as this will take care of our poverty. Let is reverse this and take care of property as this will take care of the GNP.

Given the Fact that the increased rate of industrialization in most of the hitherto "primitive" areas has woefully failed to usher in the Much desired eldorado. It has been maintained in some quarters that economic growth through industrialization is not development . Meier seems to have struck the right cord when he observes that

"Development is more than just the acquisition of industries But include such ideals of modernization as. Rise in productivity , Social and economic equalization , Modern technical know-how . Improved institutions and attitudes as well as rationally coordinated policy apparatus."

The conceptualization of development in terms of Gross National Product and other variables of growth has not only been attacked for being dubious and unreliable. But is has also been jettisoned because it is static and restricted. As noted by (Micheal Todaro). "While economic progress is an essential component of development .it is not the only one". Development encompasses more than the financial and material side of people's lives.

In search of a more fruitful conceptualization of development . Some development economists define it as an instrument process of overcoming persistent poverty, absorbing the surplus labour and diminishing inequality. Defined in this way, development implies what Morris refers to as "emerging from poverty" or what Todaro calls "the reduction or elimination from poverty" or what Todaro calls "the reduction or elimination of poverty. Inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing economy."

The lIberal scholars who conceive of development in terms of escaping from poverty are in absolute agreement that growth in GNP is not a sufficient condition for the removal of poverty. But they disagree on the possible route to achieving the goal. Thus While the world bank for instance , emphasizes on the redistribution of Growth, the International Labour Organization (ILO) places premium on basic human Needs. Also , a liberal scholar like T.W schultz insists on rural development as a means of reducing if not eradicating poverty. In this conception of development ot human resources development.

The last three decades of the 20th century witnessed yet another conception of development spearheaded by M.D Little. In his book , economic development , he forcefully argues that industrialization and the removal of poverty are not enough to stimulate development . In his view "getting the prices right" is one of the salient policies that could enhance development . He further contends that beyond the elimination of price distortions.
Development and growth could be stimulated if the following innovations are introduced . Firstly, "inward-oriented strategies of development must give way to liberalization and export promotion.
Secondly , inflation must submit to stabilization programmes. And thirdly, state-owned enterprises should be privatized."

The limitation with his definition is that little was merely advancing his views on how development could be attained but not defining the concepts of development. As a matter of fact development is not synonymous with trade liberalization or structural adjustment programme. The problems experienced by most third world countries due to structural adjustment programme are well known, therefore , like most other bourgeois definitions of development, little's conception ignores the human element which is of dramatic importance to change.

Development : the marxist Perspective.

The radical scholars' perception of development is quite different from that of their liberal counterparts. In their view , development rather than being an abstract economic category is a multi-dimensional process. When veiwed from the dialectical materialist binocular, development rather than been restricted to macro economic variables focuses on man and his well-being. As a result of this,human beings constitute the fulcrum on which it revolves.

It is thus contended by these theorists that , a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the meaning of development provides the most functional path towards overcoming the endemic problem of backwardness . In the same vein . A lopsided or faulty understanding provides a veritable avenue for tackling its symptoms rather than its viruses . Thus , radical scholars reject various liberal definitions of development .this is primarily - because they correspondingly lead to faulty policy options, which in most cases worsen and deepen the problems of development.

The failure of the liberal scholars "expert advice " to ginger up genuine development in the backward areas has constrained the radical scholars to take a hard look at the concept of development. But before examining in detail the various marxist conceptions of development. Perhaps it would be useful to re-echo the words of walter Rodney which encapsulate Marxist expositions on development. He notes that:

"Development in Human society is a many sided process. At the Level for individual, it implies increased skill and capacity , greater freedom, creativity ,self discipline , responsibility and material well being... At the level of social groups , it implies an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external relations... In the past , development has always meant the increase in the ability to guard the independence of the social group."

The above excerpt from (Rodney's work sets the tone and provides the basis for our understanding of the development in the marxist perspective. The marxists view development at three broad levels. These are the individual level, social group level, and mode of production level.
At the individual level, human beings are seen as the epicenter of development. Therefore human development is seen as a prerequisite for real development. In line with this reasoning ,development as the individual level implies mental and academic sophistication. moral rectitudes as well as material well being. It is contended that the acquisition of this aspect of development will inevitably catapult the society to the frontiers of genuine development and thus explode the shells of backwardness. For instance , the development of man will lead to increase in productivity, ability to harness the forces of nature and capacity for man to eke out a living In the face of harsh natural forces .it must be noted that this process is not influenced much by increase in capital ot the rise in GNP. In view of this , the radical scholars forcefully maintain that the first step towards development is the overall improvement of man who is expected to be the harbinger of transformation and change.

With respect to how man can be developed in order to serve as the vanguard of society's development , some marxist scholars advocate:

-i) Free , compulsory and universal education;

-ii ) Improvement of the general education, cultural and technical training of the working population;

-iii) improvement of people's health and extending their active life through a system of universal health checks in the polyclinics and sanatotriums; and

-v) ensuring that the level and structures of consumption of material, social and spiritual goods and services are raised.

It is assumed that if the above conditions are met, the aims of forming a well-rounded individual and creating the conditions for the full flowering of the individual and creating the conditions for the full flowering of the individual capabilities and endowments for the benefit of the society , as a whole , will be attained.
This position has been corroborated by kay who logically points out:

" The essence of material production consists of the actions men take upon nature in their efforts to humanize it: its aim is to transform natural objects of little use in their original form into condition where they satisfy human needs. Hollowing out a tree to make as canoe is a simple example; using iron , coal tin, rubber and so on to manufacturer a car is a more complex one: but in both cases, the principle is the same. Both canoe and car are products as opposed to natural objects, since their existence depends upon human action-labour"

In his conclusion , kay contends that since development is dependent on human labour , as can be proven when a product as a natural object is transformed by human labour so that is satisfies human need, development should center around human beings...

slightlyMad: Imagine you are walking and some dude just show up
seize you, tie you up and regardless of how much ur parent have invested in your education. Your dreams and hussles to make it
They just slit your throat only to sell your body parts and keep the change

We need stricter punishment for such offence, capital punishment is just not enough

can we have a punishment like roasting their legs while they are alive, like put the leg on fire, cook it for 30 seconds
allow him recover for 5 minutes, put it back till they become like charcoal all on live TV so others can learn

cos i dont get this madness.

And wht does that proove? That you are any better than them?

Vivly: I've seen the movie too. Great movie. Thing is, it's just like any other action movie where the main character or hero survives at the end after been faced with death by the villains. Most kids have already realized this from their 'actor and boaz' films that the good guy after facing near death experiences overcomes the badguys who always happen to be more in number. Apocalypto falls in that line. Nothing special.

hmmm... That's a very narrow analysis of movies.

VillageBoi: Hmmmmm OP... I thought it was a simple enough movie to grasp Hope you enjoyed a good 6yrs figuring it out Well done!

nice question bro.
In 2007 i wasn't an adult, my comprehension skills were low, and besides i didn't have as much interest in movies as i do now.

Dat been said. How is ur rural village?
I hope u sense the sarcasm in my voice. Village boy. Now run off to the stream.

khanivorous: The most dangerous animal is the cornered one

I remember when he jumped off the waterfall and survived... He then shouted to his hunters and was like:

Na me be jaguar paw; I dey my territory now; if you think say your beans reach mine, come try me for my home zone

hahahaha.
And tru tru d niggaz nor fit fall im hand for im territory o.
Imagine the way their boss take die.
He had that look in his eyes like. " this nigga... So you defeated me."

I love that movie.
Forest Whitaker, wasn't bad playing Idi Amin.
Thanks for opening this thread, i could hopefully help myself with the link too.

Afam4eva: It's only when a man is faced with potential death that he does the unfathomable...

You're correct sire.
Fear unzips hidden potentials.

Well, i stayed up late on t.v watching this movie called 'apocalypto',Produced & directed by Mel Gibson .

Actually, i first watched the movie in 2007 or so, but then i couldn't quite grasp the storyline, but today after watching this movie once again, i can't help but spot the dangerous combination of fear of death & strongwill to survive. 'Jaguar paw' the main character of the story is chased to the extreme, having narrowly escaped been used as a human sacrifice, his will to survive at all cost becomes the blueprint for an inverse arrangement where the haunted hunted (jaguar paw) becomes the ghost Hunter.

In my opinion, The moral lesson of this movie is, NEVER UNDERESTIMATE MAN'S SURVIVAL INSTINCTS.

If you've seen the movie, pls share yours.

True for only those who believe it!!
Only God and myself can determine my lifespan.