₦airaland Forum

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is a native of West Africa. It flourishes in the humid tropics in grooves of varying density, mainly in the coastal belt between 10 degrees North latitude and 10 degrees South latitude. It is also found up to 80 degrees South latitude in Central and East Africa and Madagascar in isolated localities with suitable rainfall. (Kenneth et al., 2007).
It grows on relatively open ground and therefore, originally spread along the banks of river and later on land cleared by humans for long- fallow cultivation (Hartley, 1998). Oil palm exists in wild, semi-wild and cultivated species in three areas of the equatorial tropics, in Africa, in south Asia and in America.

The palm fruit develops in dense bunches weighing 10 kilograms (kg) or more and containing more than a thousand individual fruits similar in size to a small plum. Palm oil is obtained from the flesh of the fruit and probably form part of the food supply of the indigenous population long before recorded history (Lynn, 1989).

A few written records of the local food use of oil palm (presumably from Elaeis guineensis) are available in account of European travelers to West Africa from the middle of the fifteenth century.

In Africa, palm oil remains a domestic plant, supplying the needs for oil and vitamin A in the diet and it was not until the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries the oil palm which is a drupe, whose outer pulp provides the palm oil of commerce, the pulp or monocarp covers the hard- shelled nut which contains the palm kernel that provides two commercial products, palm kernel, oil and the residual livestock food, palm kernel cake (Agwu and Ikechi, 2004).

The oil palm is a perennial crop that originated in the tropical rain forest of West Africa. It spread to South America in the 16th century and to Asia in the 19th century. During the 1970s, Asia overtook Africa as the principal oil palm producing region in the world.

In recent decades, the domestic consumption of palm oil in West Africa has increased more rapidly than its production. After centuries as the leading producing and exporting region, West Africa has now become a net importer of palm oil.

Between 1961 and 1965 world oil palm production was 1.5 million tons, with Nigeria accounting for 43%. However, since then, oil palm production in Nigeria has virtually been stagnated. But today, world oil palm production amounts to 14.4 million tons, with Nigeria which is one of the largest producers in West Africa, accounting for only 7%. Kei et al., (1997) compared the characteristics of the Oil palm sectors in Malaysia and Nigeria and found out that Malaysia's success is built on plantation management together with processing in large modern mills.

The plantation mode of production is characterized by large scale monoculture under unified management. In Nigeria by contrast, 80% of production comes from dispersed small holders who harvest semi wild plants and use manual processing techniques. Several million smallholders are spread over an estimated area of 1.65 million hectares in the Southern part of Nigeria.

In addition, to the agro-climatic and structural (size and scale of production and processing sectors) there are other environmental and coordination factors like little use of modern inputs and extension service; previously controlled by monopoly marketing board; low provisions of market information, standards and quality control (Udom,1986)

Since independence in 1960, Nigeria's agricultural sector has experienced slow output growth that has not kept pace with population increases. This has resulted in declining agricultural exports and domestic food supplies and a growing reliance on imported food.

Nigeria has been particularly fortunate in having vast oil reserves but it has also been plagued by economic chaos and political instability over the past three decades while the decline in the agricultural sector can be partly explained by drought and serious pest and diseases infestations, there are other prominent reasons for its decline, including the neglect of the agricultural sector after the oil boom, and unfavourable government policies which greatly affected the technology generation capacity and technology environment, farm level production and marketing environment and production and coordination machinations between different stages of the oil palm sector in Nigeria (Hyman, 1990).

Because of the increased demand for palm oil resulting from an increase in population and income growth, relative to the low productivity of the oil palm sector, Nigeria has become a net importer of palm oil. At the same time, the rapid devaluation of the Naira combined with high transportation costs from ports to internal markets put imported oil in a competitively disadvantaged position.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY OF IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP STYLE ON EMPLOYEES PERFORMANCE

The issue of leadership is very important for the survival of any organization. The impact of leadership styles on organizational performance has been a topic of interest among academic, and practitioners working in one area of leadership (Cannella, Giambatista, Barling, Dionne and Rowe et al, 1995).

Perhaps the most prominent reason for this interest is the widespread belief that leadership affects the performance of organizations (Rowe 2003).

The style of leadership adopted by some leaders is considered by researchers to be particular in achieving organizational goals, and in evoking performance among sub-ordinates (Barling, 1996, Benson 2001, Aditya 1997, Guzzo and Dickson 1996 et al).

Consequently, an effective leadership style or programme can be of immense assistance to identify and build leadership qualities among individuals within the organization.

Latest studies provide that organizations heavily invest in Human Resource Development Interventions to update and provide skill to the employees in order to attain job performance, job satisfaction and job involvement.

These skills can be impacted by providing necessary technical and non-technical training and coaching.

Leadership is widely recognized, and verified through research, leadership development can be imparted through experiential learning, vicarious learning and transformational learning and it as imparted as leaders can influence the people and motivate them. (Prooper, 2005).

Leadership development is becoming an increasingly critical and strategic imperative for organizations in the current business environment.

Leadership style remains an importance crux considered and implemented in organizations to increase human capability and other benefits that include gaining competitive advantage.

Against the foregoing, it is clear to note that today’s intensive dynamic markets features, innovation-based competition, price, performance rivalry; decreasing returns, and creative destruction of existing competencies is as a result of the leadership structure organization adopted to run their affairs.

Scholars and practitioners has suggested that effective leadership behaviours can facilitate the improvement of employees’ performance when an organization faces new challenges.

Understanding the effects of leadership style on performance is also important because leadership overtime has been viewed by some researchers as one of the key driving forces for improving a firm’s performance.

Effective leadership is seen as a potent source of management development and sustained competitive advantage for organizational improvement. The focus of this study is to examine the effect of leadership style on employee performance in Owerri Municipal Council of Imo State, Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problems On Impact Of Leadership Style On Employee Performance

The management of people at work is an integral part of the management process. To understand the theoretical importance of people in the organization is to recognize that the human element and the organization are synonymous. Some leaders do not appreciate the fact that employees have to be motivated to ensure they do what they have to do for organizational goals and objectives to be achieved.

Due to the prevalent situation in Owerri Municipal Council and Nigeria in general, where supply of labour is greater than its demand, some employers do not believe much in effective motivation of workers, and in maintenance of good relationship patterns for high organizational performance.

They uphold the view that even if workers are not properly motivated by the leadership style, they cannot leave the job as jobs are scarcely available in the labour market.

Most employers are not effective in their leadership behaviour. They treat workers as machines believing that workers could be treated anyhow to attain their goal.

Some leaders do not also manage their time effectively with their workers to enhance effective job performance from the employees. In response to this, workers do not handle their work properly. There is evidently no proper planning and priority given to tasks and in effect leads to ineffectiveness.

Against this backdrop, it is imperative to state that workers in Owerri Municipal Council, have now formed the attitude of lateness to work, delay in service delivery and have developed the witch hunting attitude etc. Their job performance appears to be influenced by the council’s leadership, with the attendant socio-cultural, political and economic implications.

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1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Academic Significance

The essence of leadership style in every organization is to influence its employee’s degree of impact on the employee’s performance. Leadership styles have varying degree of impact on employee’s performance.

Scholars such as McGraw Hill Curphy and Minberg et al (1973) have explored studies on the above subject matter. Yet such research works are deficient, especially as it lacks acceptance in the changing age of modernity, or globalization.

Their study deficiencies range from theoretical generalization of the research processes especially with their classifications of leaders to be autocratic, thereby implying a total misconception and misuse of the term in explaining leadership style.

Also, the mentioned research studies reveals that they laid much emphasis on statistical indices of the respondents while they failed to imply the FGD method to ascertain first hand result from the group in study.

Against the aforementioned, this research work will serve as a fillip to the deficiencies of studies carried out.

Practical Significance

The study is relevant in time, as it will be instrumental to organizations and mostly local government administrations to encourage administrative trends of local government employee administration in Nigeria.
As a direct outcome of the research evaluation resulting from this work.

It will be of great benefit to the Nigerian public and private civil services, trade unions and industrial relations practitioners as a platform for further intellectual findings.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this study is to examine leadership style and employee’s performance using Owerri Municipal Council workers as reference.

Other specific objectives of this study include:

1. To identify leadership style in the Owerri Municipal Council

2.

3. To ascertain the extent of corporate failure associated with a given leadership style.

4.

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The following hypotheses will guide this work
1. There is a significant relationship between leadership style and enhanced performance of employee.

2.

3. There is a significant relationship between leadership style and employees’ job satisfaction.

1.6 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS

1. Leadership: According to Chemers (1997) leadership is as a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of other individuals in the achievement of a common task.

According to Wikipedia, leadership has been described as “a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of other in the accomplishment of a common task”

2) Leadership style: According to Bass, B.M (1985) leadership style means the pattern of behaviour used by a leader in attempting to influence group members and decision regarding as a set organization goals.

3) Performance: Implies human activities which ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner.

4) Employee: An employee may be defined as “A person in the service of another under any contract of hire, express or implied, oral or written. (Black’s law Dictionary 1979).

See More

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study
Food is anything eaten to satisfy appetite and to meet physiological needs for growth, to maintain all body processes, and to supply energy to maintain body temperature and activity.

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According to Wilson, David, Kelvin and Schucknecht (2012) food is an edible material that provides nutrients. It can also be referred to as any organic substance taken by animal and after digestion, can provide nutrients.

Food is required by every living thing. It is essential for the survival of all living things. Food can be in form of solid, liquid, powder, granule or in pellet form. Food is one of the basic necessity of man as a living being. This is the reason for global attention to food.

On the other hand, food security is a condition related to the supply of food, and individuals' access to it. Maxwell (2006) stated that the term food security indicates the availability of and access to food by those in need. According to Omonona and Agoi (2007), food security is defined as physical and economic access to adequate food by all household members without undue risk of losing the access.

Food security has been identified as having food availability, food accessibility, utilization and stability of food access as its elements (Watts, 2013). Food security at household level is a subset of the national level and it requires that all individuals and households have access to sufficient food either by producing it themselves or by generating sufficient income to demand for it.

Food security is a term that emerged following the 1980s shift in food policy debate from food supply to food demand and the emergence of new emphasis on food entitlement, sustainability, vulnerability, risk and access (Maxwell and Slater, 2003).

The term has been defined in various ways. However, food security indicates the availability of and access to food by those in need (Okunmadewa, et. al, 1990). Food security has been identified as having food availability, food accessibility, utilization and stability of food access as its elements (Okuneye, 2002 and Watts, 2013).

Food security at household level is a subset of the national level and it requires that all individuals and households have access to sufficient food either by producing it themselves or by generating sufficient income to demand for it.

In Nigeria nearly a quarter of the population especially, those in the rural areas are malnourished and are the largest proportion of the people that suffer from chronic hunger, disease, poor health status among others (Azubuike, 2013).

Some assessments indicate that the probability of crop failure in certain parts of Nigeria could reach 10 per cent (Collier and Gunning, 1999: 76; FAO, 2006).

This can be much worse where policies in attaining food security are underemphasized and the gap between per capita food production and consumption is induced by the slowdown of the agricultural production growth rates (FDRE, 2001).

Researchers, planners, donors and international development agencies have given high priority to the study of food system and the problem of food security due to deepening food crises. Despite the available resources and the efforts made by governments in different times, food insecurity remained one of the most crucial challenges to economic development and has been aggravated by recurring rainfall shocks and other natural disasters (Dercon, 2004; White, 2005).
Food insecurity remains a fundamental challenge in Nigeria in spite of successive governments efforts over the years to achieve food security in the country, through the setting up of a number of agricultural development institutions, and special programmes and projects which include:

National Accelerated Food Production Progamme, NAFPP (1973);

Agriculture Development Project, ADP (1975); Operation Feed the Nation, OFN (1976);

National Seed Service, NSS (1977); Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme ACGS(1977);

Rural Banking Scheme, RBS(1977);

Green Revolution GR(1979);

Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure, DFRRI(1986);

National Agriculture Land Development Authority, NALDA(1992), National Fadama Development Project, NFDP I ,II, and III(1992, 1999 and 2008 respectively)

Nigeria Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Bank, NACRDB in 2000 (now Bank of Agriculture BOA in 2010); National Agricultural Development Fund NADF(2002); National Special Programme on Food Security, NSPFS (2002);

Commodity Marketing and Development Companies, CMDC (2003) and more recently, the Presidential Initiatives on selected crops (2004-2005), seven Points Agenda with emphasis on Food Security (2009) and the Agricultural Transformation Agenda of the past administration. Still very large proportions of Nigerians are in hunger and poverty.

Despite all these, the Food and Agriculture Organization (2004) enlisted Nigeria among countries faced with serious food insecurity problems, the vision of the country to have physical and economic access to food on a continuous basis still remains a mirage (Adeyeye, 1997).

The population of food insecure households in Nigeria was 18% in 1986 (Babatunde et. al; 2007) but had increased to 40% in 2005 and higher in the subsequent years (Sanusi, 2006, Enete et al, 2008). This has led to food insecurity in the country.

Food insecurity may be chronic, seasonal, or temporary/transitory, and it may occur at the household, regional, or national level (Maxwell, 1996).

Food insecurity or lack of access to nutritionally adequate diet in a household or country can take various forms. For example, chronic food insecurity exists when food supplies are persistently insufficient to supply adequate nutrient for all individuals.

Transitory food insecurity occurs when there is a temporary decline in access to adequate food because of instability in food production, food price increases or income shortfalls (Omonona and Agoi, 2007).

The economic development of a nation is known to be dependent on its factor endowment and this includes both the non-human and human resources. The productive capacity of the human resources is however a function of how well fed they are.

Food problem, with regards to quality and quantity, is one of the characteristics of developing countries like Nigeria (Omonona and Agoi, 2007). Hunger and malnutrition adversely affect the livelihood and well-being of a massive number of people and inhibiting the development of many poor countries (Gebremedhin, 2000).

The World Health Organization recommends an intake of between 2500 – 3400Kcal of energy per person per day. It was recommended that an individual should consume between 65-86g crude proteins per day out of which 35g (or 40%) must be animal protein (Babatunde, 2010).

Many Nigerian especially those in the rural areas have energy intake that is far below the minimum recommended daily per capita intake and the factors responsible are not well known, hence, predisposing people to the challenge of food insecurity.

This study, therefore, focused on the determinants of food security and implication among people in Ezza North local government area of Ebonyi state,

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Food is a basic necessity of life. Its importance is seen in the fact that it is a basic means of sustenance and an adequate food intake, in terms of quantity and quality, is a key for healthy and productive life. The importance of food is also shown in the fact that it accounts for a substantial part of a typical Nigerian household budget.

Various foods serve as important “vehicles” for taking nutrients into the body and bringing about human pleasure, hence, the need for food to be taken in the right quantity and quality. To measure the quality of any food taken, there are classes of essential nutrients, which must be combined, in appropriate proportion to ensure a balanced food intake.

These include carbohydrates, protein, fats and oil, vitamins and minerals
The main goal of food security therefore, is for individuals to be able to obtain adequate food needed at all times, and to be able to utilise the food to meet the body’s needs.

Currently there is a growing consensus that food insecurity and poverty problems are closely related in the Nigerian context. The World Bank (2001) identified three pillars underpinning food security.

These are food availability, food accessibility, and food utilization. This means that a nation whose food production level is unable to satisfy these three criteria is said to be food insecure.

MORE TOPICES

DETERMINANT EFFECT OF INCOME INEQUALITIES AMONG RUAL HOUSEHOLDS

ANALYSIS OF THE DETERMINANTS AND EFFECTS OF RURAL PROVERTY

EVALUATING AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION AND YOUTH DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

The Federal Ministry of Agriculture (2010) estimated that over 53 million people in Nigeria are hungry, which is about 30 percent of the country’s total population of roughly 150 million; and 52 percent live under the poverty line. However, Nigeria attained self - sufficient in food production and a net exporter of food to other regions of the continent in the 1950s and 1960s. The fall in food production has resulted to increase in food importation to clear the excess demand over supply of food in the country.

The problem of food insecurity is mainly felt in the rural areas like in Ezza North local government area of Ebonyi state. The area is characterised with subsistence farming, poor infrastructural facilities, poor storage facilities for the preservation of the few available food. Based on these, people in the area are always prone to diseases, hunger and poverty.

Despite the government intervention policies, the question to be asked are do these policy interventions achieve its intended objectives? Or do the food security policy interventions bring change on the livelihood of the rural people? These questions are the rationale for conducting evaluation research.

It is against this that the researcher sought to find out the determinants and implication of food security in Ezza North Local Government. In trying to find solutions to the problems, the following research questions were asked;

- What are the socio-economic characteristics of rural households in the study area?

- What are the causes of food insecurity in the study area/

- What are the effects of food insecurity on the rural households?

- What are the constraints to food security in the study area?.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The main objective is to examine the determinants and implications of food security in Ezza North Local government area of Ebonyi state.

Specifically, the study sought to;

i.

ii. determine causes of food insecurity in Ezza North Local Government Area of Ebonyi State

iii. analyse the effects of food insecurity on rural households in the study area

iv.

1.4 Study Hypothesis

The following null hypothesis was tested in this study:

Ho: Food insecurity has no significant effect on the socio-economic status of the people in the study area.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The above mentioned problems are general to developing countries and findings of this research will contribute to the application of policy design and analysis in policy evaluation which is one of the new research spearhead of ITC especially within the framework of Governance and Spatial Information Management (GSIM) program and evaluating policy effectiveness is also viewed by many as the basic tool for monitoring progress.

Despite its usefulness, critical evaluation of policy effectiveness is not carried out in majority of the developing countries like Nigeria in general and in Ebonyi state region in particular.

Therefore, it is in this respect that the researcher intends to carry out a study so as to evaluate the effectiveness of Ebonyi state State Food Security Policy in ensuring food security.

While the datasets and findings of the research is particular to the study area, the evaluation of policy effectiveness approach as well as the results of this study will be largely generic and can be applied elsewhere.

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