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farmtips 016:

REQUIRED DEPTH OF IRRIGATION APPLICATION
When the irrigation schedule has been determined (see Volume 4) it is known how much water (in mm) has to be given per irrigation application. It must be checked that this amount can indeed be given, with the irrigation method under consideration.
Field experience has shown that most water can be applied per irrigation application when using basin irrigation, less with border irrigation and least with furrow irrigation. In practice, in small-scale irrigation projects, usually 40-70 mm of water are applied in basin irrigation, 30-60 mm in border irrigation and 20-50 mm in furrow irrigation. (In large-scale irrigation projects, the amounts of water applied may be much higher.)
This means that if only little water is to be applied per application, e.g. on sandy soils and a shallow rooting crop, furrow irrigation would be most appropriate. (However, none of the surface irrigation methods can be used if the sand is very coarse, i.e. if the infiltration rate is more than 30 mm/hour.)
If, on the other hand, a large amount of irrigation water is to be applied per application, e.g. on a clay soil and with a deep rooting crop, border or basin irrigation would be more appropriate.
The above considerations have been summarized in Table 5. The net irrigation application values used are only a rough guide. They result from a combination of soil type and rooting depth. For example: if the soil is sandy and the rooting depth of the crop is medium, it is estimated that the net depth of each irrigation application will be in the order of 35 mm. The last column indicates which irrigation method is most suitable. In this case medium furrows or short borders.
The sizes of the furrows, borders and basins have been discussed in the previous chapters. The approximate rooting depths of the most Important field crops are given in.

farmtips 017:

LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGY
Basin irrigation is the simplest of the surface irrigation methods. Especially if the basins are small, they can be constructed by hand or animal traction. Their operation and maintenance is simple (see Figure 66).
Furrow irrigation - with the possible exception of short, level furrows -requires accurate field grading. This is often done by machines. The maintenance - ploughing and furrowing - is also often done by machines. This requires skill, organization and frequently the use of foreign currency for fuel, equipment and spare parts.

farmtips 018:

Plant Disease Control
It is very important to remember that a correct diagnosis is the most important step in the eventual control of a plant disease. Most diseases have a fairly well established control protocol. Most often, failure to control the disease happens because the problem was misdiagnosed in the first place.
This is a list of the most important general strategies for management of plant diseases:
Crop Resistance - should be first line of defense whenever possible
Cultural Methods
Physical Methods
Pesticides
Regulation

each method will be explained in subsequent farmtips.

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farmtips 019:

Crop Resistance:
The following terms are important in a discussion of crop resistance:
Immunity
Resistance
Tolerance

Immunity is the rule in the plant kingdom; most plants are immune to most pathogens( a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease) Therefore, one does not have to worry that the black spot on roses will appear next year on the garden tomatoes.

Resistance, strictly speaking, refers to the lower disease levels seen in some cultivars (a plant variety that has been produced in cultivation by selective breeding) or varieties of a particular crop species compared to other susceptible cultivars. Always choose resistant varieties when available.

Tolerance refers to varieties or cultivars that appear to be just as heavily diseased as standard varieties, but which manage to be more productive or vigorous.

farmtips 020:

Cultural methods for disease control refer to those growing methods that reduce pathogen levels or reduce the rate of disease development. These include:
Sanitation
Crop Rotation(which involves planting crops in different places each season in order to replenish nutrients removed from the soil by a particular plant, and intercropping, a method of planting crops in close proximity. These practices help to break pest cycles, allow the soil to naturally replenish itself, help reduce weeds, and encourage plant diversity in order to avoid insect and pest infestation.)
Host Eradication
Improvement of Crop Environment

farmtips 021:

Pesticides:


Pesticides are chemicals used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can damage crops and livestock and reduce farm productivity. The most commonly applied pesticides are insecticides (to kill insects), herbicides (to kill weeds), rodenticides (to kill rodents), and fungicides (to control fungi, mold, and mildew).

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farmtips 022:

Pesticide terminologies that every farmer should be familiar with:

There are many different types of pesticides, each is meant to be effective against specific pests. The term "-cide" comes from the Latin word "to kill."

Algaecides are used for killing and/or slowing the growth of algae.

Antimicrobials control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.

Biopesticides are made of living things, come from living things, or they are found in nature.

Desiccants are used to dry up living plant tissues.

Defoliants cause plants to drop their leaves.

Disinfectants control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.

Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust.

Herbicides kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, aka weeds.

Illegal and Counterfeit Pesticides are imported or sold illegally.

Insecticides are used to control insects.

Insect Growth Regulators disrupt the growth and reproduction of insects.

Minimum Risk Pesticides are exempt from EPA registration, but many states require them to be registered.

Miticides control mites that feed on plants and animals. Mites are not insects, exactly.

Molluscicides are designed to control slugs, snails and other molluscs.

Mothballs are insecticides used to kill fabric pests by fumigation in sealed containers.

Natural and Biological Pesticides control pests using things found in nature, or man-made versions of things found in nature.

Ovicides are used to control eggs of insects and mites.

Pheromones are biologically active chemicals used to attract insects or disrupt their mating behavior. The ratio of chemicals in the mixture is often species-specific.

Plant Growth Regulators are used to alter the growth of plants. For example, they may induce or delay flowering.

Repellents are designed to repel unwanted pests, often by taste or smell.

Rodenticides are used to kills rodents like mice, rats, and gophers.

Synergists make certain pesticides more effective, but they are not effective when used alone.

Wood Preservatives are used to make wood resistant to insects, fungus and other pests.

farmtips 023:

How to avoid pesticide contamination

Pesticide use in general can be made safer for the environment and human health risks minimized by:
1. Training users and advisers to high standards, backed-up by certification in Pesticide use.
2. Using the right Pesticide Protective Equipment (PPE) such as nose mask, chemical resistant glove, protective suits, boots, safety goggles during mixing and field applications.


3. Using alternative methods of pest control (although these too can involve environmental risks), or combining these with chemical methods.
4. Where two or more pesticides may be equally effective, selecting the one that is likely to involve least environmental risk.
5. Working to a crop management plan based on proper risk assessments and cautious decisions.
6. Using the most appropriate application technique and regularly checking and calibrating equipment.
7. Disposing of containers and unused products correctly.
There are arguments for the use of pesticides and also for not using them. The fact still remains that pesticides are cheaper and faster in dealing with potentially destructive pests. We advocate that if you must use them ensure that you use them properly and in accordance with the rules and specifications. In fact there are various standards that have been set to ensure that farmers, consumers and the environment are adequately protected. One of such is a list of approved pesticides developed by NAFDAC.

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farmtips 024: cat fish feed ingredients

Catfish feeds are made up of major and minor ingredients combined in the right proportion to give required nutrient to fish that feed on them. Certain ingredients are major because they form the larger proportion of the feed – even up to ninety-six percent of the total feed ingredients. However, minor ingredients are needed in very small quantity in feed but their importance cannot be overlooked. Absence of feed ingredients needed in small quantity can reduce the efficiency of your feed to about fifty percent. Therefore, understanding of both major and minor ingredients is needed to prepare an efficient catfish feed.

The classification of feed ingredients in this article is patterned after human classes of food. Feed ingredients are classified based on their major composition. This means that some ingredients are made up of more than one class of nutrient but are classified under the dominant nutrient. The list of catfish feed ingredients are endless; in fact, more are being discovered on daily bases. The identified feed ingredients are grouped under five classes namely; Protein, Energy, Fat and oil, Vitamin and mineral, and other additives.

List of Ingredients according to class of nutrition they belong

1)Proteinous Ingredients are the building block in any feed ingredient because they are the major ingredients that aid the growth of fish and help in replacement of dead cells and production of new cells. Good catfish feed is made up of between 38 – 45 percent protein, which is more than twice richer than any poultry feed. The list includes animal and plant proteins;

Fishmeal is made from processed fishes of different kinds with different level of protein. Fishmeals are identified based on the level of protein in them e.g. 75 percent, 72 percent, 65 percent and 62 percent fish meal. Also in this category is local fish meal which is made up fish particle, fish head and waste, and sometimes whole fish. Local fish is not processed; hence level of protein in it is determined through laboratory analysis. Depending on the quality, local fish can be graded into A, B, C, etc.
Fish Analogues are synthesis in the laboratory to replace fishmeal in feed. All classes of protein present in real fishmeal are present in fish analogue, though in synthetic form.
Feather Meal is processed feathers of poultry. It is very rich in protein and can be used to complement the use of fish to reduce cost.
Poultry Meal is made from poultry waste: meat, offal, chicken head and leg, etc. It comprises of more than 60 percent protein depending on how it is processed. It can also complement fishmeal. When fishmeal is not available, poultry meal can serve as good substitute (though in feed for older fishes).
Blood Meal is the richest of all proteinous ingredients. It has more than 85 percent protein. However, it can only be used in small proportion in feed because it has a limited type of protein. Overuse of blood meal can lead to broken/cracked head in fish. 5 percent inclusive rate is recommended for your fish feed.
Meat Meals are made from flesh and other body part of domestic animals. They are excellent in catfish feed and enhance feed palatability.
Soya Meal is a king among plant proteins. Soy beans can be processed as either meal or full-fat soya. Full-fat soya is excellent in catfish feed because of oil as an added advantage in it.
Ground Nut Cake (GNC) is made from groundnut seed. The remaining cake from groundnut after oil has been removed from it is known as GNC. It becomes slug when oil is not properly removed from it.
Ben-seed Cake is a good substitute for GNC in fish feed.
Cotton Seed Meal is made from cotton seed that has been de-oiled.
Sun Flower Seed Meal is a good source of protein and also a good substitute for Soya meal when available.


2)Energy Ingredients help in providing necessary strength for livestock. Catfishes need energy as much as they need protein for all round development. List of energy ingredients for Catfish feed formulation includes:

Maize is used in catfish feed because of its high energy composition. The use of maize is recommended when the price is relatively low. Maize must be powdered in fish feed in order to benefit fully from its use.
Processed Cassava (Gari) is a cheap energy source that can be used in catfish feed. It is not a preferred source of energy in feed except other energy ingredient is not available.
Dough is wheat flour that has been mixed with water. It has good energy level and is cheaper than maize. Dough is waste from bread and biscuit factories.
Biscuit and Noodle waste can be used in compounding catfish feed where they are available because their main ingredients are wheat based.
Milk waste has more energy than protein and should not be used to replace proteinous ingredients.
Brewery waste can also be used as energy based ingredient in catfish feed, but this is not usually recommended.


Molasses is sugar waste rich in energy. It can be used as binding agent in locally pelletized feed. Also, starch is used as binding agent in pellet.

3) Fats and oils are essential feed ingredients comprising of fatty acid, and they also help in energy delivery in catfish feed. Some energy ingredient contain high level of fat and oil e.g. full-fat soya, Slug GNC, etc. At times, oil is added to feed to increase the energy in such feed. Some fats and oils that can be used in feeds are;

Palm oil
Fish oil
Animal fat
Palm cannel oil
Other edible oils

4) Vitamins and Minerals: Growth, health, and body processes are controlled by this class of nutrition. For example, organic and inorganic chemicals are found in vitamin and minerals. Most of the minerals and vitamins needed in catfish feed are available in Fish Premix. Therefore, the use of Premix is vital in catfish feed formulation. To ensure adequate presence of mineral and vitamin in feed, a kilogram of Premix is recommended for 200 kilograms of feed.

5) Other Additives may be needed to replace certain nutrients that are not available in sufficient quantity in other feed ingredients. List of these additives are:

Salt is used for taste, body process and anti-biotic in feed.
Methionine is protein manufactured to complement it shortage in soya. To avoid wastage, 1 kg of Methionine is recommended for a ton of fish feed.
Lysine is protein needed in fish feed but not available in sufficient quantity in feed ingredient. A kilogram of lysine is also recommended for a ton of feed.
Bone Meal is added to feed for strong bone formations.
DCP contains calcium and phosphate. It also helps bone formation and enhancement. The use of bone meal is not necessary when DCP is used. However, bone meal is preferred because it is cheaper.
Toxin Binder
Drugs, etc.

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farmtips 025: Nutritional requirements for catfish feed

Catfish feed requires certain nutrients that will help the farmer optimize the growth as well as increase the profit on their catfish farming business. Below are the 4 classes of nutrients, in order of importance, essential in any feed formulation:

Protein: This class of nutrient is required for building body tissue and replacement of damaged tissue. It contains physiological molecules such as hormones and enzymes. It can be obtained from plants and animals.

Energy (Carbohydrate): This nutrition provides the energy needed for catfishes. Grains of cereals and cassavas are the major source of this nutrient.

Vitamins and minerals: Growth, health, and body process are controlled by this class of nutrition. For example, organic and inorganic chemicals are found in vitamin and minerals.

Fat: Fat contains vital fatty acids and also enhances energy delivery in feed.

farmtips 026: guidelines for the choice of feed for catfish.

Your choice of feed ingredient and formula should be guided by the following;

Nutritional requirement of your fish stock.

The presence or absence of anti-nutritional or toxic factor.

Availability of preferred ingredient.

Palatability of available ingredient.

Cost and benefit of the available ingredients.

Available processing technology or method.

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farmtips 026: guidelines for the choice of feed for catfish.

Your choice of feed ingredient and formula should be guided by the following;

Nutritional requirement of your fish stock.

The presence or absence of anti-nutritional or toxic factor.

Availability of preferred ingredient.

Palatability of available ingredient.

Cost and benefit of the available ingredients.

Available processing technology or method.

farmtips 027: sytems used in cat fish farming(1)
there are many systems used for cat fish farming but only four will be explained in our farmtips. the four choosen are based on ease of use and application.
i- Recycling system
ii- flow through system
iii- earthen pond system
iv- floating cage system

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farmtips 028: sytems used in cat fish farming(2)
As listed in our previous farm tips, the systems will be explained

1 . Recycling system: in this system, sophisticated, high cost method of Catfish production with very high stocking density is employed. The water is been purified and reused with little addition from an external water source to make up for water loss. This system is expensive to run due to the need for constant power supply and frequent monitoring of the water quality. These high costs are typically offset by a much higher production capacity. The stocking density for this system is between 150-300 fishes per cubic meter.

2. Flow through system: this method involves introducing water into the pond after removing already degraded water. This systems are mainly employed in concrete, tarpaulin and wooden ponds. Stocking density is between 50-10 fishes per cubic meter.

3. Earthen pond system: this system involves rearing of fish in their seminatural environment. Growing of fish in earth ponds and trenches. It involves digging and introducing water into the pond after which fish is stocked. No water change but fresh water could be put in to make up for seepage and evaporation. The natural food supply within the pond can be increased through pond fertilization (e.g with animal waste). This system of farming has a lower stocking density due to lack of water change. Stocking density is between 20-100 fishes per cubic meter. .

4 Floating cage system: this system entails the rearing of fish in an already existing body of water (like River, lakes etc) using some forms of enclosure (floating cages, baskets, stock with nets etc). The system of farming cuts away the expense of water management and the existing water body determines the water quality. The stocking density for this system is 150-300 per cubic meter of enclosure.

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