₦airaland Forum

ask dr Katty, she is an OB/GYN she might help you

https://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-104493.0.html

if you have primary physician or doctor ask him/her to recommend for you a good and certified dentist to check out your teeth, or ask for recommendation from any one you trust their opinions. the dentist would probably recommend braces to close and correct the gaps and the cost may vary depending on the location and dentist and also how much treatment/ types you might need. so see one to get a quote.

there are many types of treatment available to correct it so it is better to see a dentist ASAP so the dentist can properly examine the gaps and determine the best treatment good for your condition.

I"d suggest you seek a second opinion from another dentist, if possible. There has to be a cause for the pain, so seek the advice of another dentist other than the one you are currently seeing now, before it is too late. the second one might see sometimes the first one neglected or couldn't detect

What is the difference between HIV-1 and HIV-2?

There are two types of HIV: HIV-1 and HIV-2. Both types are transmitted by sexual contact, through blood, and from mother to child, and they appear to cause clinically indistinguishable AIDS. However, it seems that HIV-2 is less easily transmitted, and the period between initial infection and illness is longer in the case of HIV-2.

Worldwide, the predominant virus is HIV-1, and generally when people refer to HIV without specifying the type of virus they will be referring to HIV-1. The relatively uncommon HIV-2 type is concentrated in West Africa and is rarely found elsewhere.

How many subtypes of HIV-1 are there?
HIV types, groups and subtypes

Each type is divided into groups, and each group is divided

into subtypes and CRFs.

The strains of HIV-1 can be classified into three groups: the "major" group M, the "outlier" group O and the "new" group N. These three groups may represent three separate introductions of simian immunodeficiency virus into humans.

Group O appears to be restricted to west-central Africa and group N - discovered in 1998 in Cameroon - is extremely rare. More than 90% of HIV-1 infections belong to HIV-1 group M and, unless specified, the rest of this page will relate to HIV-1 group M only.

Within group M there are known to be at least nine genetically distinct subtypes (or clades) of HIV-1. These are subtypes A, B, C, D, F, G, H, J and K.

Occasionally, two viruses of different subtypes can meet in the cell of an infected person and mix together their genetic material to create a new hybrid virus (a process similar to sexual reproduction, and sometimes called "viral sex".1 Many of these new strains do not survive for long, but those that infect more than one person are known as "circulating recombinant forms" or CRFs. For example, the CRF A/B is a mixture of subtypes A and B.

The classification of HIV strains into subtypes and CRFs is a complex issue and the definitions are subject to change as new discoveries are made. Some scientists talk about subtypes A1, A2, A3, F1 and F2 instead of A and F, though others regard the former as sub-subtypes.
What about subtypes E and I?

One of the CRFs is called A/E because it is thought to have resulted from hybridization between subtype A and some other "parent" subtype E. However, no one has ever found a pure form of subtype E. Confusingly, many people still refer to the CRF A/E as "subtype E" (in fact it is most correctly called CRF01_AE).2

A virus isolated in Cyprus was originally placed in a new subtype I, before being reclassified as a recombinant form A/G/I. It is now thought that this virus represents an even more complex CRF comprised of subtypes A, G, H, K and unclassified regions. The designation "I" is no longer used.3
Where are the different subtypes and CRFs found?

The HIV-1 subtypes and CRFs are very unevenly distributed throughout the world, with the most widespread being subtypes A and C.

Subtype A and CRF A/G predominate in West and Central Africa, with subtype A possibly also causing much of the Russian epidemic.4

Historically, subtype B has been the most common subtype/CRF in Europe, the Americas, Japan and Australia. Although this remains the case, other subtypes are becoming more frequent and now account for at least 25% of new infections in Europe.

Subtype C is predominant in Southern and East Africa, India and Nepal. It has caused the world's worst HIV epidemics and is responsible for around half of all infections.

Subtype D is generally limited to East and Central Africa. CRF A/E is prevalent in South-East Asia, but originated in Central Africa. Subtype F has been found in Central Africa, South America and Eastern Europe. Subtype G and CRF A/G have been observed in West and East Africa and Central Europe.

Subtype H has only been found in Central Africa; J only in Central America; and K only in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.
Are more subtypes likely to "appear"?

It is almost certain that new HIV genetic subtypes and CRFs will be discovered in the future, and indeed that new ones will develop as virus recombination and mutation continue to occur. The current subtypes and CRFs will also continue to spread to new areas as the global epidemic continues.
The implications of variability

Does subtype affect disease progression?

A study presented in 2006 found that Ugandans infected with subtype D or recombinant strains incorporating subtype D developed AIDS sooner than those infected with subtype A, and also died sooner, if they did not receive antiretroviral treatment. The study's authors suggested that subtype D is more virulent because it is more effective at binding to immune cells.5 This result was supported by another study presented in 2007, which found that Kenyan women infected with subtype D had more than twice the risk of death over six years compared with those infected with subtype A.6 An earlier study of sex workers in Senegal, published in 1999, found that women infected with subtype C, D or G were more likely to develop AIDS within five years of infection than those infected with subtype A.7

Several studies conducted in Thailand suggest that people infected with CRF A/E progress faster to AIDS and death than those infected with subtype B, if they do not receive antiretroviral treatment.8
Are there differences in transmission?

It has been observed that certain subtypes/CRFs are predominantly associated with specific modes of transmission. In particular, subtype B is spread mostly by homosexual contact and intravenous drug use (essentially via blood), while subtype C and CRF A/E tend to fuel heterosexual epidemics (via a mucosal route).

Whether there are biological causes for the observed differences in transmission routes remains the subject of debate. Some scientists, such as Dr Max Essex of Harvard, believe such causes do exist. Among their claims are that subtype C and CRF A/E are transmitted much more efficiently during heterosexual sex than subtype B.9 10 However, this theory has not been conclusively proven.11 12

More recent studies have looked for variation between subtypes in rates of mother-to-child transmission. One of these found that such transmission is more common with subtype D than subtype A.13 Another reached the opposite conclusion (A worse than D), and also found that subtype C was more often transmitted that subtype D.14 A third study concluded that subtype C is more transmissible than either D or A.15 Other researchers have found no association between subtype and rates of mother-to-child transmission.16 17 18 19
Is it possible to be infected more than once?

Until about 1994, it was generally thought that individuals do not become infected with multiple distinct HIV-1 strains. Since then, many cases of people coinfected with two or more strains have been documented.

All cases of coinfection were once assumed to be the result of people being exposed to the different strains more or less simultaneously, before their immune systems had had a chance to react. However, it is now thought that "superinfection" is also occurring. In these cases, the second infection occurred several months after the first. It would appear that the body's immune response to the first virus is sometimes not enough to prevent infection with a second strain, especially with a virus belonging to a different subtype. It is not yet known how commonly superinfection occurs, or whether it can take place only in special circumstances.20 21
Do HIV antibody tests detect all types, groups and subtypes?

Initial tests for HIV are usually conducted using the EIA (or ELISA) antibody test or a rapid antibody test.

EIA tests which can detect either one or both types of HIV have been available for a number of years. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, current HIV-1 EIAs "can accurately identify infections with nearly all non-B subtypes and many infections with group O HIV subtypes."22 However, because HIV-2 and group O infections are extremely rare in most countries, routine screening programs might not be designed to test for them. Anyone who believes they may have contracted HIV-2, HIV-1 group O or one of the rarer subtypes of group M should seek expert advice.

Rapid tests - which can produce a result in less than an hour - are becoming increasingly popular. Most modern rapid HIV-1 tests are capable of detecting all the major subtypes of group M.23 Rapid tests which can detect HIV-2 are also now available.24
What are the treatment implications?

Although most current HIV-1 antiretroviral drugs were designed for use against subtype B, there is no compelling evidence that they are any less effective against other subtypes. Nevertheless, some subtypes may be more likely to develop resistance to certain drugs, and the types of mutations associated with resistance may vary. This is an important subject for future research.

The effectiveness of HIV-1 treatment is monitored using viral load tests. It has been demonstrated that some such tests are sensitive only to subtype B and can produce a significant underestimate of viral load if used to process other strains. The latest tests do claim to produce accurate results for most Group M subtypes, though not necessarily for Group O. It is important that health workers and patients are aware of the subtype/CRF they are testing for and of the limitations of the test they are applying.

Not all of the drugs used to treat HIV-1 infection are as effective against HIV-2. In particular, HIV-2 has a natural resistance to NNRTI antiretroviral drugs and they are therefore not recommended. As yet there is no FDA-licensed viral load test for HIV-2 and those designed for HIV-1 are not reliable for monitoring the other type. Instead, response to treatment may be monitored by following CD4+ T-cell counts and indicators of immune system deterioration. More research and clinical experience is needed to determine the most effective treatment for HIV-2.

[quote author=pres-elect link=topic=274324.msg3903798#msg3903798 date=1242937653]have u heard of the dangers of not being vaccinated?[/quote]exactly, the benefits of getting vaccinated outweighs the risk (which is sometimes very small)

Milk is very Super good for your overall health. if you have lactose intolerant there are many options that can help like trying different types of milk or using products that helps with the intolerance. like the lactase enzyme this helps with the milk digestion.
No treatment can improve the body’s ability to produce lactase, but symptoms can be controlled through diet

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=233305.msg3855636#msg3855636 date=1242105241]nah, its the same ol nba yao[/quote]nope . . . . def. nt wot i meant by tall men

uyimen:
@sissy. i c you have a razor sharp mouth ,belive me i can make it blunt.

hahahaha too bad. it is already too late cox denver is going to kick their azz anywaxz

one more game they're out!!!!!!!!

OgidiBoy:
My parents never laid a finger on us growing up, that is just child abuse. Nigerians who spank their kids are so primitive

sometimes kids needs spanking and americanas do spank their kids so does that also mean they r primitive?

OgidiBoy:
[/b]

Which one do you want me to enter ? your own

nah . . . .  . dnt enter the Labor and Delivery ward just stand at the visitor lounge

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855608#msg3855608 date=1242103990]ok, i will behave, especially as the mavs won [/quote]oh hell no

why did they win wanted Denver to kick their ass off

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855563#msg3855563 date=1242101988]u harsh oooo [/quote]nah . . . am very sweet if u behave

[quote author=Negro_Ntns link=topic=233305.msg3855555#msg3855555 date=1242101720]lmao, Sissy, I heard Shaq will be in chi-town this weekend.  How 'bout that?  Tall and clumsy!

Height is good to the extent that the person has a balance and proportion,  the stretch of the limbs and the symmetry is soft on the eyes, otherwise they begin to look like biggie smalls!  lol[/quote]shaq n yao r extremely example i didn't mean giraffes

and b.t.w i said they need to be fyn too which shaq isnt

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=233305.msg3855559#msg3855559 date=1242101866]yup, and exceeds the height requirement too [/quote]not the Yao i knw, maybe u meant a fyn young blood w/ dat name

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=233305.msg3855534#msg3855534 date=1242100744]so u will fall head over heels for Yao[/quote]hell to da no

i said fyn guys in uniform e.g navy, marine, solider etc. dat kinda uniform not some ugly sport jersey unf. and those in business attire and those dressing fly. does Yao met all these requirement

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855531#msg3855531 date=1242100663]fingers crossed that i can make it up on that chart  [/quote]u berra cox any mess up u loss all the good points and start allover again

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855506#msg3855506 date=1242099649]so what do i get for being a good boi? [/quote]u get a point on the character counts chart am keeping just for ya and a

dnt have a problem w/height however, i have to admit i just like the presence that tall fyn guys bring into a room esp those in uniform or business attire and those dressing fly

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855497#msg3855497 date=1242099237]my bad, i will remember to behave herself, i mean myself  [/quote]good boi, berra behave yaself nxt tyme

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855491#msg3855491 date=1242098974]30sec is too much sef, na long throat dey worry u, go marry ur ghana man, i don issue u ur certificate of divorce  


i say it with u broda, ewwwwwwwwwwwww!   [/quote]i will whip ur ass oo, rememba im still watching ya

OgidiBoy:
Digging into the hole with my pee pee is different.

nah, u r just twisting it. if u r going to be repulsed by the sight of it berra u dnt enter the L*D at the first place

so does that also mean you wouldnt be having sex w/her since u r going to be digging the same place?

OgidiBoy:
If I was married and my wife is having a baby I won't mind being in the delivery room, but I sure don't want to be down there where the baby in coming out from. That's just not right ewwwww. How in the world would I want to have MouthAction with my wife after seeing all that blood and gots

[quote author=FL Gators! link=topic=143396.msg3855430#msg3855430 date=1242095828]@post

He needs to make it mandatory for him to witness his baby being born into this world.

What kind of man would miss seeing that event IF he could?[/quote]sis how u dey? someone needs ur help here oo https://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-271019.0.html

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855427#msg3855427 date=1242095734]well, i keep to the cardinal rule, keep 9 yards between you and a shouting woman  [/quote]u will have to hold her hand, so no escaping for u

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855417#msg3855417 date=1242095197]i will stuff my ears and will be yelling shout up woman!  [/quote]hahaha

u mean if she doesnt slap u during the shouting as a way to ease the pain

shoulda posted this in some other sections, like GD, or family. my sis ebony dnt do politics so it will prolly take longer 4 her to see it

[quote author=St☆rStruck link=topic=271350.msg3855389#msg3855389 date=1242093161]A mess.[/quote]big time

[quote author=na2day? link=topic=143396.msg3855381#msg3855381 date=1242092944]the only way i will be in there is if i am wearing the darkest of sunglasses with my eyes close and my ears covered with my headset listening to my favorite music [/quote]u see ya head, listening to music and wearing sunglasses if only you were in the beach

the screaming sef will block ur ear drums

tufi