olabowale:

sleek29 calls every female girl. Mr. Ciility or civilization.

What is civilazation? Please define it and you will find the imprint of Islam. Europe did not take shower, until islam taught them. They did not know how to use cutleries, either until Islam educated them.


You sleek29, I am certain dont know how to wipe yourself clean. And your cloth; undergarments and pants can't be devoid of urine! You stand and you shake and you are unmindful of the remaining droplets that socked your pants. lol.

How civilized can you be, man.

olabowale:

sleek29 calls every female girl. Mr. Ciility or civilization.

What is civilazation? Please define it and you will find the imprint of Islam. Europe did not take shower, until islam taught them. They did not know how to use cutleries, either until Islam educated them.

You sleek29, I am certain dont know how to wipe yourself clean. And your cloth; undergarments and pants can't be devoid of urine! You stand and you shake and you are unmindful of the remaining droplets that socked your pants. lol.

How civilized can you be, man.

olabowale:

sleek29 calls every female girl. Mr. Ciility or civilization.

What is civilazation? Please define it and you will find the imprint of Islam. Europe did not take shower, until islam taught them. They did not know how to use cutleries, either until Islam educated them.


You sleek29, I am certain dont know how to wipe yourself clean. And your cloth; undergarments and pants can't be devoid of urine! You stand and you shake and you are unmindful of the remaining droplets that socked your pants. lol.

How civilized can you be, man.

Agricultural Revolution
Main article: Muslim Agricultural Revolution
The valve-operated reciprocating suction piston pump with crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism invented by al-Jazari in the 12th century.

The Islamic Golden Age witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as th[b]e "Muslim Agricultural Revolution" or "Arab Agricultural Revolution".[40] Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World, this enabled the diffusion of many plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world. Crops from Africa such as sorghum, crops from China such as citrus fruits, and numerous crops from India such as mangos, rice, and especially cotton and sugar cane, were distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops.[41] Some have referred to the diffusion of numerous crops during this period as the "Globalisation of Crops"[/b],[42] which, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture (see Industrial growth below), led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[43] agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.[41]

During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, sugar production was refined and transformed into a large-scale industry by the Arabs, who built the first sugar refineries and sugar plantations. The Arabs and Berbers diffused sugar throughout the Islamic Empire from the 8th century.[44]

Muslims introduced cash cropping[45] and the modern crop rotation system where land was cropped four or more times in a two-year period. Winter crops were followed by summer ones. In areas where plants of shorter growing season were used, such as spinach and eggplants, the land could be cropped three or more times a year. In parts of Yemen, wheat yielded two harvests a year on the same land, as did rice in Iraq.[41] Muslims developed a scientific approach to agriculture based on three major elements; sophisticated systems of crop rotation, highly developed irrigation techniques, and the introduction of a large variety of crops which were studied and catalogued according to the season, type of land and amount of water they require. Numerous encyclopaedias on farming and botany were produced, containing accurate, precise detail.[46]

Industrial growth

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution: Industrial growth and Inventions in the Muslim world

The Iranian born Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) introduced the experimental method to chemistry. He established the chemical industry and perfumery industry.

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, steam power,[56] fossil fuels such as petroleum, and early large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic).[57] The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[58] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[44] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[59]

A number of industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, water, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulphur, ammonia, lead and iron. Early large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries, and knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[60] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[38]

[edit] Labour

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Labour

The labour force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[61] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[62] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[63] Muslim women also had a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry.[62]

During the Arab slave trade, slaves were purchased on the frontiers of the Islamic world and then imported to the major centers, where there were slave markets from which they were widely distributed.[64][65][66] Slaves occupied an important place in the economic life of Islamic world.[67][68] Large numbers of slaves were exported from eastern Africa to work in salt mines and labour-intensive plantations; the best evidence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj revolt in Iraq in the 9th century.[69] Slaves were also used for domestic work,[70] military service,[71] and civil administration.[72] Central and Eastern European slaves were generally known as Saqaliba (i.e. Slavs), while slaves from Central Asia and the Caucasus were often known as Mamluk.[73]

[edit] Technology
Main articles: Inventions in the Muslim world, Muslim Agricultural Revolution, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers
The programmable automata of al-Jazari.

A significant number of inventions were produced by medieval Muslim engineers and inventors, such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, the Banū Mūsā, Taqi al-Din, and most notably al-Jazari.

Some of the inventions believed to have come from the Islamic Golden Age include the camera obscura, coffee, soap bar, tooth paste, shampoo, pure distillation, liquefaction, crystallization, purification, oxidization, evaporation, filtration, distilled alcohol, uric acid, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating suction piston pump, mechanized waterclocks, quilting, scalpel, bone saw, forceps, surgical catgut, vertical-axle windmill, inoculation, smallpox vaccine, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, three-course meal, stained glass and quartz glass, Persian carpet, and celestial globe.[74]

Chemical processes

The following chemical processes were invented by Muslim chemists:

* Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.[5]

* Calcination (al-tashwiya): Invented by Geber.[6][7]

* Crystallization (al-tabalwur): Invented by Geber.[8]

* Distillation, pure (al-taqtir): Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) was the first to fully purify chemical substances through distillation, using the alembic, in the 8th century.[4]

* Destructive distillation: Invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.[9]

* Dry distillation

* Filtration (al-tarshih): Invented by Geber.[4]

* Liquefaction, purification, oxidisation, and evaporation (tabkhir): Invented by Geber.[10]

* Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation (al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.[6]

* Steam distillation: Invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.[11][citation needed]

* Water purification

[edit] Chemical substances

* Arsenic, alkali, alkali salt, borax, and pure sal ammoniac: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7]

* Cheese glue and plated mail: Invented by Geber.[12]

* Derivative and artificial chemical substances: In the 10th century, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi wrote that he and his Muslim predecessors (Calid, Geber and al-Kindi) invented the following derivative and artificial substances: lead(II) oxide (PbO), red lead (Pb3O4), tin(II) oxide (Isfidaj), copper acetate (Zaniar), copper(II) oxide (CuO), lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, antimony oxide, iron rust, iron acetate, Daws (a contituent of steel), cinnabar (HgS), arsenic trioxide (As2O3), alkali (al-Qili), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and Qalimiya (anything that separates from metals during their purification).[13]

* Ethanol and pure ammonia: Isolated by Arabic chemists.[14]

* Lead carbonatic: Isolated by Geber.[15]

* Medicinal substances: Muslim chemists discovered 2,000 medicinal substances.[2]

* Potassium nitrate, pure: Isolated by Hasan al-Ramah in the 1270s.[7]

* Rose water: First produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world through the distillation of roses, for use in the drinking and perfumery industries.[7]

* Sal nitrum: Isolated by Geber.[7]

Acids

* Aqua regia: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.[7]

* Carboxylic acids: Geber isolated Acetic acid from vinegar.[8][16] He is also credited with the discovery and isolation of Citric acid, the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits.[8]

* Mineral acids: The mineral acids—nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid—were first isolated by Geber.[17] He originally referred to sulfuric acid as the oil of vitriol.[7][14][18]

* Organic acids: Geber isolated Uric acid.[10] He also isolated Tartaric acid from wine-making residues.[8]

Elements

* Arsenic: Isolated by Geber in the 8th century.[15]

* Antimony: Isolated by Geber.[4][15]

[edit] Food and drink

* Coffee: Produced by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia, in the 9th century.[10]

* Confectionery: Due to advances in sugar production and the invention of sugar refineries, this led to the production of early confectioneries by the Arabs.[19]

* Distilled water and water purification: Purified by Muslim chemists.[14]

* Pure distilled alcohol and ethanol: First isolated by Al-Kindi (Alkindus) in the 9th century.[7][20] Ahmad Y Hassan wrote: "The distillation of wine and the properties of alcohol were known to Islamic chemists from the eighth century. The prohibition of wine in Islam did not mean that wine was not produced or consumed or that Arab alchemists did not subject it to their distillation processes. Jabir ibn Hayyan described a cooling technique which can be applied to the distillation of alcohol."[21]

* Restaurant and three-course meal: The earliest restaurants came into existence throughout the Islamic world from the 10th century, shortly before restaurants appeared in China in the 11th century. The Islamic world had "restaurants where one could purchase all sorts of prepared dishes." These restaurants were mentioned by Al-Muqaddasi (born 945) in the late 10th century.[22] Restaurants in medieval Islamic Spain served three-course meals, which was earlier introduced in the 9th century by Ziryab, who insisted that meals should be served in three separate courses consisting of soup, the main course, and dessert.[23]

* Rose water: See Chemical substances above.

* Sugar refinery: See Industrial milling below.

[edit] Glass industry

* Artificial gemstone: Geber (d. 815) first described the production of high-quality coloured glass cut into artificial gemstones.[24][25]

* Artificial pearl and purification of pearls: In his Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), Jabir described the first recipes for the manufacture of artificial pearls and for the purification of pearls that were discoloured from the sea or from grease.[26]

* Coloured stained glass windows: Muslim architects in Southwest Asia were the first to produce stained glass windows using coloured glass rather than stone producing a stained glass-like effect, as was the case in early churches. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Geber scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing high-purity coloured glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.[24][25]

* Concave, convex and spherical mirrors: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) gave the earliest accurate descriptions of concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries,[27] and he also gave the earliest accurate description of spherical mirrors.[28]

* Dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls: In The Book of the Hidden Pearl, Geber described the first recipes for the dying and artificial colouring of gemstones and pearls.[26]

* Glass factory: The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Ar-Raqqah, Syria, in the 8th century. Extensive experimentation was carried out at the complex, which was two kilometres in length, and a variety of innovative high-purity glass were developed there. Two other similar complexes have also been discovered, and nearly three hundred new chemical recipes for glass are known to have been produced at all three sites.[29] The first glass factories were thus built by Muslim craftsmen in the Islamic world. The first glass factories in Europe were later built in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Corinth, Greece.[17]

* Quartz glass and Silica glass: The production of glass from stone (including quartz) and sand, was pioneered by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century.[30]

* Parabolic mirror: Invented by Ibn Sahl in the 10th century.[31] These observations were repeated by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics (1021).[28]

Classical knowledge

Following the fall of the Roman Empire and the dawn of the Middle Ages, many texts from Classical Antiquity had been lost to the Europeans. In the Middle East however, many of these Greek texts (such as Aristotle) were translated from Greek into Syriac during the 6th and the 7th century by Nestorian, Melkites or Jacobite monks living in Palestine, or by Greek exiles from Athens or Edessa who visited Islamic Universities. Many of these texts however were then kept, translated, and developed upon by the Islamic world, especially in centers of learning such as Baghdad, where a “House of Wisdom”, with thousands of manuscripts existed as soon as 832. These texts were translated again into European languages during the Middle Ages.[1] Eastern Christians played an important role in exploiting this knowledge, especially through the Christian Aristotelician School of Baghdad in the 11th and 12th centuries.

These texts were translated back into Latin in multiple ways. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Toledo, Spain (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114-1187). Burgondio of Pise (died in 1193), who discovered in Antioch lost texts of Aristotle, translated them into Latin.

[edit] Islamic sciences
Further information: Latin translations of the 12th century and Islamic science
Chirurgical operation, 15th century Turkish manuscript.

Islam was not, however, a simple re-transmitter of knowledge from antiquity. It also developed its own sciences, such as algebra, chemistry, geology, spherical trigonometry, etc. which were later also transmitted to the West.[7][8] Stefan of Pise translated into Latin around 1127 an Arab manual of medical theory. The method of algorism for performing arithmetic with Indian-Arabic numerals was developed by al-Khwarizmi (hence the word “Algorithm”) in the 9th century, and introduced in Europe by Leonardo Fibonacci (1170-1250).[9] A translation of the Algebra by al-Kharizmi is known as early as 1145, by a certain Robert of Chester. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 980-1037) compiled treaties on optical sciences, which were used as references by Newton and Descartes. Medical sciences were also highly developed in Islam as testified by the Crusaders, who relied on Arab doctors on numerous occasions. Joinville reports he was saved in 1250 by a “Saracen” doctor.[10]

Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin.

One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,[11] including Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's On Algebra and Almucabala, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica,[12] al-Kindi's On Optics, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences,[13] the chemical and medical works of Rhazes,[14] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[15] and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banū Mūsā, Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics).[11]

[edit] Alchemy and chemistry
See also: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

The chemical and alchemical works of Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) were translated into Latin around the 12th century and became standard texts for European alchemists.[14] These include the Kitab al-Kimya (titled Book of the Composition of Alchemy in Europe), translated by Robert of Chester (1144); and the Kitab al-Sab'een, translated by Gerard of Cremona (before 1187).

Marcelin Berthelot translated some of Jabir's books under the fanciful titles Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury. Several technical Arabic terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, have found their way into various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.

The chemical and alchemical works of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) were also translated into Latin around the 12th century.[14]

[edit] Astronomy and mathematics
A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459).
See also: Islamic astronomy and Islamic mathematics

Arabic astronomical and mathematical works translated into Latin during the 12th century include the works of Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī and Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, including The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, one of the founding texts of algebra;[12] and Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta).[16]

Al-Khazini's Zij as-Sanjari (1115-1116) was translated into Greek by Gregory Choniades in the 13th century and was studied in the Byzantine Empire.[17] The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani and Averroes and the non-Ptolemaic models produced by Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's Ta'rikh al-Hind and Kitab al-qanun al-Mas’udi were translated into Latin as Indica and Canon Mas’udicus respectively.

Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his Liber Abaci (1202).[14] Al-Jayyani's The book of unknown arcs of a sphere, the first treatise on spherical trigonometry, had a "strong influence on European mathematics", and his "definition of ratios as numbers" and "method of solving a spherical triangle when all sides are unknown" are likely to have influenced Regiomontanus.[18]

Translations of the algebraic and geometrical works of Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe from the 17th century.[19][20]
European depiction of the Persian doctor al-Razi, in Gerard of Cremona's Receuil des traites de medecine (1250-1260). Gerard de Cremona translated numerous works by Arabic scholars, such as al-Razi's, but also those of Ibn Sina.[21]

[edit] Medicine
See also: Islamic medicine

Hospitals began as Bimaristans in the Islamic world and later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. The first hospital in Paris, Les Quinze-vingt, was founded by Louis IX after his return from the Crusade between 1254-1260.[22] One of the most important medical works to be translated was Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025), which was translated into Latin and then disseminated in manuscript and printed form throughout Europe. It remained a standard medical textbook in Europe up until the early modern period, and during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was published more than thirty-five times.[23] It introduced the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the method of quarantine, experimental medicine, and clinical trials.[24] He also wrote The Book of Healing, a more general encyclopedia of science and philosophy, which became another popular textbook in Europe. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi's Comprehensive Book of Medicine, with its introduction of measles and smallpox, was also influential in Europe. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi's Kitab al-Tasrif was also translated to Latin and used in European medical schools for centuries.[11][25]

Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Compound Drugs was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. 1522), who may have also translated Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in the Canon of Avicenna, which first described pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, and which may have had an influence on Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo and William Harvey.[26]

uplawal:

@osisi
talk now or dont u know how to google again

oyb:

especially for DR osisi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe

i understand that the next thing osisi will do is make light of these signifcant contributions to humanity - as that is the only way her agenda can se served

i wonder exactly what scientific advances christianity can claim to have brought to the world ?

dom perignon ?

olabowale:

thanks. and there was no israel, and many others. only one african country. no south american and latin american etc.

$osisi:

Oyb,how many strokes do you give your Iyawo when she misbehaves

babaearly:

@ osisi

Check your signature and place the right link. abi na Moderator don go edit am?

Anyway bye guys, got nothing to be doing here